Seun Bamidele both Nigeria and Cameroon (Hart 2022). In such a context, dissent is not only politically inconvenient but economically threatening. Armed forces are thus deployed not just to secure borders but to guard resource sites, further militarizing everyday life. This nexus between economic interest and military force reinforces structural violence against Bakassi’s residents, who often lack formal employment, access to justice, or secure land tenure (Ezeilo 2010; Otora 2022). Finally, the psychological and social consequences of militarization cannot be overlooked. Inhabitants of Bakassi particularly children, women, and displaced youth have suffered long-term trauma due to exposure to violence, forced displacement, and state surveillance (Sheikh et al. 2016; Madoro et al. 2020). Studies on internally displaced populations reveal heightened rates of PTSD, depression, and community fragmentation in militarized zones. As Hussain (2023) emphasizes, the securitization of Bakassi must be understood not only as a geopolitical strategy but also as a lived reality that deepens human insecurity and undermines the prospects for peaceful reintegration and reconstruction. Thus, any sustainable resolution to the Bakassi crisis must move beyond legalistic or militarized frameworks and toward inclusive, rights-based governance that centers the experiences and demands of the affected communities. Citizenship, Identity, and Legal Exclusion The aftermath of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruling on Bakassi has left a troubling legacy of exclusion and legal uncertainty for many of its former Nigerian inhabitants. While the ICJ’s decision (ICJ 2002a; 2002b) resolved the state-centric boundary dispute in favor of Cameroon, it did not sufficiently consider the implications for the people living in the affected territories. The Greentree Agreement that followed lacked robust mechanisms for securing the citizenship rights of displaced persons, particularly those who chose to remain in Bakassi under Cameroonian control (International Peace Institute 2008; Bonchuk 2014). This omission created a legal vacuum in which tens of thousands of people have found themselves without clear nationality, legal status, or protection under either state’s laws (Odinkalu 2012; Cameroon Multi-Country Office 2017). Cameroonian nationality law has been widely criticized for its opacity and selective enforcement. As Nguindip (2017) explains, naturalization procedures in Cameroon are marred by bureaucratic inefficiencies, ethnolinguistic biases, and executive discretion. In Bakassi, former Nigerian nationals are frequently denied identity documents and are excluded from civic participaBrazilian Journal of African Studies | Porto Alegre | v. 10, n. 19, Jan./Jun. 2025 | p. 144-169 157