156 Borders without belonging: statelessness, displacement, and human insecurity in post-han- Militarization and the Criminalization of Dissent The post-transfer period in Bakassi has witnessed an intensification of militarization, which has become a central mechanism for asserting state control and sovereignty. In Cameroon, the state has relied on a combination of armed presence, administrative restructuring, and economic coercion to solidify its authority over the disputed peninsula. Reports indicate that Cameroonian forces have implemented aggressive taxation and conducted surveillance and policing operations that contribute to a climate of fear and intimidation among local populations (BBC 2013; Macdonald 2024). Such measures are not merely administrative but form part of a broader securitization strategy that seeks to suppress dissent and ensure compliance through force. These policies have had a chilling effect on civic expression and have delegitimized traditional leaders and community voices who contest state practices or advocate for the rights of the displaced (Beckly 2013). On the Nigerian side, militarization has taken a different form. While ostensibly deployed to protect the rights of displaced Bakassi citizens and to ensure regional stability, Nigerian military operations have sometimes become enmeshed in local disputes and power struggles. In several instances, soldiers have been accused of arbitrary arrests, harassment, and extrajudicial actions, particularly against those suspected of aligning with separatist or self-determination movements (Kah 2014; Bonchuk 2014). These practices have blurred the lines between protection and repression, especially as communities struggle to navigate the ambiguities of post-transfer governance. As Akhere (2023) notes, the Nigerian state’s security interventions often lack a coherent post-conflict strategy, leading to fragmented and sometimes contradictory outcomes. One of the most visible consequences of this militarized environment has been the criminalization of dissent. Movements such as the Bakassi Movement for Self-Determination (BAMOSD) emerged as grassroots responses to perceived abandonment and injustice but were quickly labeled as security threats by both states (Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada 2010; Fobella 2007). Leaders and members of these groups have faced imprisonment, surveillance, and forced exile. The silencing of such voices has foreclosed possibilities for political negotiation and exacerbated the alienation felt by residents of Bakassi, many of whom already contend with statelessness, displacement, and economic precarity (Ebolo 2022; Ngalim 2019). Moreover, the intertwining of militarization with resource control adds another layer of complexity. The Bakassi Peninsula is rich in oil and fishing resources, and control over these has become a strategic interest for Brazilian Journal of African Studies | Porto Alegre | v. 10, n. 19, Jan./Jun. 2025 | p. 144-169