Exploring the Interface Between Birth Registration and Citizenship Determination: A Scoping Study in Seven Countries in Southern Africa 4. Findings of Country Research This section describes the findings from the country legal research and interviews conducted with civil registration officials from Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia and the Republic of Congo, as well as findings from desk research for South Africa. The subsections describe: a) progress in civil registration system strengthening and the linkage to ID systems, b) documentation of citizenship determination at birth registration, c) the legal basis for citizenship determination at birth registration, d) the impact on individuals as a result of the intertwining of the processes and e) the rationale for intertwining birth registration and citizenship determination. a. CRVS System Strengthening Efforts and Linkage to ID Systems The countries analyzed here have all made enormous strides over the past two decades towards improving their civil registration systems and ensuring the recognition of the right of birth registration of every child born within their territory. As part of the improvements, all the countries except the Republic of Congo30 have at least partially digitalized their civil registers and linked them with their ID systems or national population registers (see Table 1). The countries analyzed have also sought to improve accessibility to civil registration services by expanding their office network, strengthening cooperation with the health sector, and organizing mobile campaigns, some of which target vulnerable population groups. Also, some of the countries have recently amended their legislation: In 2024, Botswana, Eswatini and Namibia passed new civil registration laws. Botswana has a new act under consideration with stronger safeguards for vulnerable populations.31,32,33 The level of completeness of birth registration varies among the countries, with Botswana having the highest completeness rates at close to full registration.34 Table 1: Linkage between civil registration and the ID system Botswana Linkage between birth registration and the ID systems and issuance of unique ID number (UIN) Systems are linked. UIN is generated at birth but only issued at 16 years of age and when applying for ID card. Republic of Congo Systems are not currently linked. New system for linkage under development. Eswatini Lesotho Malawi Namibia South Africa Systems are linked. UIN issued at birth. Systems are linked. UIN issued at birth if the child is a citizen. Systems are linked. UIN issued at birth if the child is a citizen. Systems are linked. The new Civil Registration and Identification Act allows for issuing UIN at birth. Systems are linked (for citizens and permanent residents). UIN issued at birth (for citizens and permanent residents). b. Documentation of Citizenship Determination at Birth Registration Six of the seven countries analyzed—all but Republic of Congo—have implemented processes for the determination of citizenship at the time of birth registration for children born in the country. In addition, five of the six countries, all but Namibia, have a process for birth registration and citizenship determination for children born outside the country whose parents are citizens. As described below, these citizenship determinations are reflected in the birth registration record and/or birth certificate. 14