Ali and Cochrane Comparative Migration Studies (2024) 12:16 In addition to skilled workers, Saudi Arabia is also trying to attract foreign investors through its citizenship policy changes (Al-Sharif, 2023). The government has implemented several reforms aimed at making it easier for foreign businesses to operate in the country. In 2019, Riyadh announced new regulations allowing foreign investors to own 100% of companies in several sectors, including renewable energy, engineering services, and management consulting (Reuters, 2019). Additionally, foreign investors can now own up to 49% of companies in the entertainment, education, and health sectors (Kane, 2019). These changes are part of Riyadh’s broader efforts to attract foreign investment and diversify its economy. This has helped to create a more favorable investment climate in the country and has attracted interest from international companies looking to expand into new markets. As part of the country’s efforts to attract foreign investment and diversify its economy, and according to the country’s Vision 2030 plan (with ambitions to transform the country), 44 international companies have moved their headquarters to Riyadh (Barbuscia & Azhar, 2021). The companies reportedly represent a variety of sectors, including finance, technology, and renewable energy, and have chosen to relocate to Saudi Arabia due to its strategic location, business-friendly environment, and attractive incentives. The move is expected to boost the country’s economy and enhance its global reputation as a destination for foreign investment and business opportunities (Barbuscia & Azhar, 2021). Given the relatively stability of residency and citizenship laws for several decades, the changes that have taken place in the last five years are significant and signal a major change for Saudi Arabia. Granting of nationality to the children of Saudi women married to non-citizens has the potential to alter not only the demographics of the country, but also the norms of marriage. More opportunities for semi-permanent and permanent residency (via investment, skills, or business) provide new pathways for stability for noncitizens to live and work in the country. While the granting of citizenship has been limited to-date, that this is occurring is also a signal to new notions of citizenship in Saudi Arabia. Overall, Saudi Arabia’s new residency and citizenship policy changes are aimed at attracting skilled and wealthy foreigners who can contribute to the country’s economy and help to diversify it away from its dependence on oil, the success of these policy changes are yet to be seen. By offering long-term residency and other benefits to these individuals, the government hopes to create a more welcoming and inclusive society that can compete on a global stage. Qatar Demographics and economy Qatar is a geographically and demographically small country, with a population around 3 million who almost entirely live in or around the capital city of Doha (Cochrane & Al-Hababi, 2023). According to the World Bank, Qatar has one of the highest levels of GDP per capita globally, enabled by its vast reserves of natural gas (World Bank, 2023). Qatar’s economy is largely dominated by the oil and gas industry (it is one of the world’s largest exporters of liquefied natural gas). For example, in 2018, hydrocarbons and related products accounted for over 90% of the country’s total export earnings (Brookings Institution, 2021). However, the country has made efforts in recent years to diversify its economy, investing in infrastructure (e.g., new airport, seaport, roads, and large-scale Page 7 of 17