26 Kristy A. Belton and Jamie Chai Yun Liew which includes people with expired residency visas and undocumented workers, are excluded from acquiring citizenship via jus soli. Still other states provide that both jus soli and jus sanguinis criteria must be met. For instance, France limits birthright citizenship to children born in France to a French parent or to a parent also born in France. Finally, some states offer a graduated process by which children born in the state to noncitizen parents may be eligible for citizenship by a certain age once residency requirements are fulfilled. For example, Israel allows persons between the ages of eighteen and twenty-one to acquire citizenship if they were born in Israel and resided there for more than five years. States such as Cambodia and Germany, on the other hand, only confer jus soli citizenship if a child is born to noncitizens who are residing there legally. When it comes to jus sanguinis or acquisition of citizenship by “right of blood,” restrictions may include limiting citizenship to the first generation or to those born of a citizen father. Canada, for example, limits jus sanguinis to the “first generation.” Thus, if a Canadian citizen, who herself was born outside Canada, gives birth to a child outside Canada, her child will not be Canadian. In the Bahamas, only male citizens can pass on their citizenship to children born outside the country if they are married to a noncitizen. Bahamian women married to noncitizens who give birth to children outside the Bahamas have no similar right to pass on their citizenship. Numerous other exceptions exist that illustrate how citizenship is not an automatically acquired status for all at birth and is, therefore, an inadequate foundation upon which to base human rights. Furthermore, as the next section illustrates, states also exclude certain groups from citizenship when it serves their interests. citizenship and its exclusions States have long erected barriers, indirectly and directly, to citizenship. Throughout history, and in modern times, legal categories of exclusions or exceptions have been created to prevent certain people from acquiring citizenship and to provide normative strength to the idea that only some are purportedly deserving of citizenship. In many cases, some may experience exclusion by virtue of intersecting statuses – because they are an Indigenous person who is also a woman, or a person who is of an ethnic minority group that has also been deemed a security risk to the state (consider the Kurds, for example). What follows are a few examples of groups who have not always found themselves fully captured within the state’s borders of formal belonging. Many are, as Tendayi Bloom discusses in Chapter 10, individuals who are in both a citizen and a noncitizen relationship to the state. Indigenous Peoples Despite already living on the land when Europeans arrived, Indigenous peoples have not always been considered legal citizens of colonizing states. In Canada, for https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108914994 Published online by Cambridge University Press