Statelessness & Citizenship Review 2020 2(1) and as a possible influence on current deliberations about how to ‘end statelessness’. 12 II METHODOLOGY The historical narrative relies principally on secondary sources for accounts of citizenship equality campaigns during the interwar period. Work particularly by Ellen DuBois brings to life much of the colourful interactions of feminists and their protagonists during a month-long conference on nationality in The Hague. The work of Caroline Bredbenner is called on for her detailed descriptions of the United States’ feminist movement against unequal citizenship laws. And, Mary Daly’s rich account of the young Irish state’s position on GDNL in the 1920s and ’30s is the background to a case example here. A small number of primary sources from the early 1900s are analysed within this article. Feminist campaigners for equal citizenship in the early 1900s were often lawyers or academics, and so their own arguments and thoughts on the issue are important to modern scholars approaching the issue from a legal or theoretical viewpoint. From that period, writings by US poet and activist Muna Lee are referenced, as well as work by Scottish suffragette and barrister Chrystal Macmillan and prominent Brazilian suffragette Bertha Lutz. A small number of original texts by lawyers and politicians in opposition to the demands of the citizenship equality campaigners are also analysed. III LIMITATIONS This article’s heavy reliance on secondary sources has limited the focus to citizenship equality campaigns in the Western context in the early 1900s. Little is known, or at least written about in English — another limitation of this study — of similar activism in other regions during that period. IV PART 1: FEMINIST REVISIONIST HISTORY — 1900S CAMPAIGNING Few international questions present such conflicting and perplexing aspects as that of the nationality of women. It is a modern question … Now [women] have been forced into a rude awareness of the completely chaotic conditions of existing nationality laws. 13 Muna Lee, 1929 Introduction At the time of the First World War, nationality laws implied that a woman was compulsorily stripped of her nationality upon marriage to a foreign man. 14 In contradiction to the idea that the First World War brought women’s nationality issues to the forefront, Chrystal Macmillan, in 1925, reminded readers that the International Council of Women (the ‘International Council’) first took up the 12 13 14 Cf ‘Ending Statelessness’, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (Web Page) <https://www.unhcr.org/en-ie/ending-statelessness.html>. Lee (n 7) 222. Macmillan (n 7) 154. 46