Book Review: Citizenship education, culture, or sports; military service; and substantial financial investment. 20 Spiro highlights how these faster forms of naturalisation, along with civics tests and language requirements, can challenge liberal values. He cites Ayelet Shachar, who argues that investor citizenship undermines ‘the basic egalitarian and participatory thrust of political membership as we currently know it’. 21 A question arises as to whether other, or even all, preferential approaches to naturalisation have a similar effect, to the extent they could be construed as unequal and arbitrary. Spiro refers to a naturalisation application in a German state that asks applicants for their opinions on a woman’s right to be alone in public or to dress as a German woman as ‘anti-Muslim’ and ‘discriminatory’. 22 However, that characterisation is in tension with the questions’ apparent intent to affirm liberal values of gender equality and freedom of expression. In this way, naturalisation practices illuminate the contestability of acceptable and unacceptable conditions for inclusion and exclusion. The third chapter addresses rights and obligations of citizenship. 23 While it is substantially concerned with US law, the chapter raises a number of issues of general interest, such as the rights of noncitizens and the relevance or not of territorial presence on the rights and obligations of citizens abroad. Somewhat oddly, Spiro does not directly ask or answer what the unique rights of citizenship are. Rather, nearly half the questions concern the rights of noncitizens, with citizens’ rights clarified secondarily. The text suggests that the extent of rights available exclusively to citizens varies so much over time and geography that there are almost no universalised citizenship rights. For instance, while voting is commonly understood as the right of citizens only, noncitizens in the US who had started naturalisation processes were able to vote in every presidential election until 1924. 24 European Union member states allow residents from other member states to vote in local elections, and New Zealand and Chile allow permanent residents to vote in national and local elections. 25 The discussion of the ‘distinctive obligations of citizenship’ is only two sentences long, with Spiro noting ironically that ‘[f]or all the talk of the “obligations of citizenship”’, the only obligation of US citizenship is the duty to serve on juries when called. 26 Other jurisdictions or social and political norms around citizenship beyond legal rules are not mentioned, though other core obligations are noted with respect to noncitizens. For instance, Spiro clarifies that while obligations of military service and taxes were traditionally seen as hallmarks of citizenship, they are no longer. Some states have abandoned military service requirements, while some extend them to permanent residents and ‘most taxes are imposed on a territorial basis regardless of citizenship status’. 27 Chapter Three leaves the reader with the impression that, at a general level, rights and obligations of citizenship increasingly lack distinctiveness from rights and obligations of noncitizens. International human rights apply — at least 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 ibid 48. ibid 46. ibid 55. ibid 61. ibid 73. ibid 74. ibid 72. ibid 71–72. 363