966 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. K. MULAJ The principle of non-refoulement enshrined in Article 33 of the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, that entered into force on 22 April 1954, provides that: ‘No Contracting State shall expel or return (“refouler”) a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his [or her] life or freedom would be threatened on account of his [or her] race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion’ (U.N.T.S. 1954, 137). The existence of ethnically based armed conflicts has historically benefitted Tatmadaw to justify its power and dominant position in the country and portray itself as ‘the guarantor of national unity’ (UNHRC 2018, para. 12; Paliwal 2024). For a detailed overview of the desperate state of Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, refer to International Crisis Group (2023) and Human Rights Watch (2023). For contextualisation of this claim in South Asia’s setting refer to D’Costa (2011). The official Myanmar census in 2014 registered Muslims as constituting 4.3% of the overall population (The Republic of the Union of Myanmar 2014). Burma’s predominant Buddhist nation amounted to about 60 million. However, the UN Population Fund found that the Rohingya were not counted in the 2014 census (The Guardian 2014). ORCID Klejda Mulaj http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1189-0606 References Abrar, C. R. 1995. “Repatriation of Rohingya Refugees.” University of Dhaka, Refugee and Migratory Movements Research Unit. http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs/Abrar-repatriation.htm. Agamben, G. 1998. Homo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Ahmed, K. 2023. I Feel No Peace: Rohingya Fleeing Over Seas and Rivers. London: Hurst. Alam, J. 2018. “The Rohingya of Myanmar: Theoretical Significance of the Minority Status.” Asian Ethnicity 19 (2): 180–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/14631369.2017.1407236. Alam, J. 2019. “The Current Rohingya Crisis in Myanmar in Historical Perspective.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 39 (1): 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2019.1575560. Amnesty International. 2019. “No One Can Protect Us”: War Crimes and Abuses in Myanmar’s Rakhine State.” May 29. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa16/0417/2019/en/. Amnesty International. 2004. “Myanmar, The Rohingya Minority: Fundamental Rights Denied.” May 18. https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/asa16/005/2004/en/ Anderson, B. 1983. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. Arendt, H. 1958. The Origins of Totalitarianism. Cleveland, OH, and New York: Meridian Books. Blinken, A. J. 2022. “Speech at the Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington D.C.” March 21. https:// www.state.gov/secretary-antony-j-blinken-at-the-united-states-holocaust-memorial-museum. Bosniak, L. 2008. The Citizen and the Alien: Dilemmas of Contemporary Membership. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Braithwaite, J. 2020. “Crime as a Cascade Phenomenon.” International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice 44 (3): 137–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/01924036.2019.1675180. Braithwaite, J., and B. D’Costa. 2016. “Cascades Across An ‘Extremely Violent Society’: Sri Lanka.” International Journal of Conflict and Violence 10 (1): 11–24. https://doi.org/10.4119/ijcv-3075. Braithwaite, J., and B. D’Costa. 2018. Cascades of Violence: War, Crime and Peacebuilding Across South Asia. Acton: Australian National University Press. Campbell, D., and M. Dillon. 1993. “Introduction: The End of Philosophy and the End of International Relations.” In The Political Subject of Violence, edited by D. Campbell and M. Dillon, 161–178. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Card, C. 2003. “Genocide and Social Death.” Hypatia 18 (1): 63–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1527-2001. 2003.tb00779.x.