All Ears to the Ground state-led practices. These responses highlight abuses of state power requiring redress.21 B Modes of Citizenship Violence in Palestinian, Kurdish and Rohingya Homelands This section considers modes of citizenship violence that reach beyond the citizenship rules themselves and extend to other bureaucratic and military means. First, it considers the bureaucratic colonial structures that facilitate contemporary forms of citizenship stripping. It then identifies five key modes through which states weaponise their citizenship regimes against groups in contemporary contexts, providing examples from Rohingya, Palestinian and Kurdish contexts. Citizenship stripping is inextricably linked to broader state-driven bureaucratic processes associated with state-building, development, efficiency and governance. State enumeration and identification technologies are tools of modernity, efficiency and development. Yet they can also be weaponised alongside citizenship and immigration rules to target particular populations and dispossess them of their lands, rights and identities. 22 This dual function of state bureaucracies as vehicles for the efficient simultaneous delivery of welfare on the one hand and oppression on the other has roots in colonial techniques of control.23 Colonial administrations used strategies such as census-making, mapping, race and caste classifications, and identification technologies with the dual purposes of efficient governance and the domination of populations who resisted colonial rule. Many of these techniques continue to be used in contemporary contexts.24 The British established administrative borders and hierarchical administrative structures at the village and regional levels in their colonies, which were used in tandem with military operations to control and pacify populations. 25 These colonial bureaucratic structures and techniques formed some of the foundations of 21 22 23 24 25 For more on state crime as a social construct and the role of resistance and social audience in seeking sanction where international law fails, see Kristian Lasslett, ‘Power, Struggle and State Crime: Researching Through Resistance’ (2012) 1(1) State Crime 126, 137–9. David Lyon, ‘Identification, Colonialism, and Control: Surveillant Sorting in Israel/Palestine’ in Elia Zureik, David Lyon and Yasmeen Abu-Laban (eds), Surveillance and Control in Israel/Palestine: Population, Territory and Power (Routledge 2011) 49 (‘Identification, Colonialism and Control’). David Lyon, Identifying Citizens: ID cards as Surveillance (Polity Press 2009). Charles Haukes Todd Crosthwaite, The Pacification of Burma (Edward Arnold 1912). On mapping, see Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-body of a Nation (University of Hawaii Press 1997); Rachel Hewitt, Map of a Nation: A Biography of the Ordnance Survey (Granta Publications 2011). On census, see Anat E Leibler, ‘“You Must Know your Stock”: Census as Surveillance Practice in 1948 and 1967’ in Elia Zureik, David Lyon and Yasmeen Abu-Laban (eds), Surveillance and Control in Israel/Palestine: Population, Territory and Power (Routledge 2011) 239; Jane M Ferguson, ‘Who’s Counting?: Ethnicity, Belonging, and the National Census in Burma/Myanmar’ (2015) 171(1) Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 1. On race and caste classifications, see Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism (Princeton University Press 2018); Sunil S Amrith, ‘The Pursuit of Citizenship’ in Crossing the Bay of Bengal: The Furies of Nature and the Fortunes of Migrants (Harvard University Press 2013) 212–250. On identification technologies, see John C Torpey, The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship, and the State (Cambridge University Press 2000); Radhika Singha, ‘The Great War and a “Proper” Passport for the Colony: Border-Crossing in British India, c. 1882–1922’ (2013) 50(3) The Indian Economic & Social History Review 289; Radhika Viyas Mongia, ‘Race, Nationality, Mobility: A History of the Passport’ (1999) 11(3) Public Culture 527. Crosthwaite (n 24) 3. 11