ADDRESSING STATELESSNESS THROUGH THE RULE OF LAW be found in the nationality laws of more than 80 countries around the world. It is estimated that more than 75% of the world’s known stateless populations belong to ethnic, religious, or linguistic minority groups.8 Sex discrimination in nationality laws is another major cause of statelessness. Currently, 24 countries retain nationality laws that deny women the right to confer citizenship on their children on an equal basis with men, which can result in statelessness where, for example, the father is stateless, unknown, or unwilling or unable to take the administrative steps needed to confer his nationality.9 Gaps in legislation that can lead to statelessness include the failure to include critical safeguards in nationality laws to prevent childhood statelessness, for example to ensure that children found abandoned on the territory of a State acquire the nationality of that State where the parents are unknown. In the context of State succession, entire populations can find themselves stateless if, for example, a territory is transferred from one State to another, a new State is formed from the territory of another, or if two or more States form out of the dissolution of another and nationality laws of the emerging entities do not recognise all persons residing on the territory as nationals. An example of administrative obstacles that can put people at risk of statelessness are costly or complex bureaucratic procedures to acquire relevant documentation to prove nationality, which may be a particular problem for children born outside the country of nationality of their parents. Finally, issues relating to lack of nationality and birth documentation can lead to statelessness due to difficulties in proving relevant links to a State, for example place of birth or parentage. Consequences of statelessness The consequences of statelessness can be severely debilitating. Stateless persons often do not enjoy their human rights, such as access to education, healthcare, employment, property ownership, freedom to marry, freedom of movement and political participation as well as basic services such as opening a bank account and obtaining a SIM card. They are also at a heightened risk of abuse and exploitation, arbitrary detention, and trafficking. Statelessness can cause individuals to face a lifetime of obstacles and exclusion and prevents individuals’ full participation in society. This may not only impact individuals affected by statelessness but also society at large, as intergenerational statelessness can lead to alienated and marginalised communities, exacerbating social tensions and increasing the potential for conflict. An example of this was seen in Côte d’Ivoire, where nationality and identity issues led to a divide between Ivorians and non-Ivorians, fuelling community tensions that contributed to civil war.10 Statelessness may also negatively impact a society’s economy and development process, as it is often accompanied by unemployment and poverty. Stateless persons are in many instances excluded from formal employment and economic opportunities and face challenges in accessing education.11 This negatively impacts human development and prevents individuals from contributing to a country’s economic growth and development. As a result, stateless persons are some of the most vulnerable people in the world. Box 1: Statelessness in Kenya and Lebanon Recently conducted surveys in Kenya and Lebanon found stark quantifiable differences in the socio-economic conditions in which stateless people live. In Kenya, a survey conducted in 2019 by UNHCR and the World Bank amongst the then stateless Shona population, found that the rate of poverty amongst this community was 24% higher than in the urban Kenyan population.13 A survey conducted in 2021 by UNHCR and Siren Associates in the Akkar region of Lebanon found that 39% of stateless persons lacked formal education compared to 15% Lebanese nationals, 65% were unemployed as compared to 54% Lebanese nationals, and the average monthly wage of those who are stateless being as low as half of the minimum wage in the country or USD 19 per month.14 6