Acknowledgments This study was prepared by Lucia Hanmer and Marina Elefante (World Bank Group), as part of the Identification for Development (ID4D) Initiative, the World Bank Group’s cross-sectoral effort to support progress toward identification systems using 21st century solutions. It was made possible through the generous support of the partners of the ID4D Multi-Donor Trust Fund (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Omidyar Network, and the Australian government). This study benefited greatly from the inputs of Jeni Klugman (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security), Rangita de Silva de Alwis (University of Pennsylvania Law School), the law firm Cameron, McKenna, Nabarro, Olswang LLP and the reviews of the World Bank Group staff including Julia Braunmiller, James Neumann, and David Satola under the supervision of Vyjayanti Desai. v