Contents About ID4D iv Acknowledgments v Abbreviations vi I. Introduction 1 II. Gender-based legal barriers against women to identification 4 a) Barriers to obtaining national ID cards 5 b) Barriers to obtaining passports 6 c) Barriers to birth registration and certification 7 d) Barriers to acquiring nationality 8 III. Removing gender-based legal barriers against women to identification 17 a) Removing barriers to obtaining national ID cards and passports 17 b) Removing barriers to birth registration and certification 19 c) Removing discrimination against women from nationality laws 20 IV. The forward agenda 24 Annex. Equal rights to a nationality in international law 25 Bibliography 27 Tables Table 1: Gender-based legal differences in access to identification 4 Table 2. Discrimination against women in nationality laws 9 Figure Figure 1. Top 10 countries with gender gaps in ID 1 iii