• Children born in refugee camps in countries without birthright citizenship; • Children born to mothers that cannot confer their nationality; • Individuals from nomadic tribes, individuals that have been de-nationalized; and, • Persons who have renounced their citizenship without acquiring another nationality. Some individuals in these categories may also fit in the profiles above. a. The “doubly undocumented” or “doubly invisible” Individuals lacking birth or nationality registration in their home countries and US citizenship are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. Such individuals may not be able to claim citizenship in their origin countries despite being entitled to it. The term “doubly undocumented” refers to those without identity documentation in either their country of origin or destination. UNICEF reports lower than average rates of birth registration in some developing countries, for certain ethnic and religious minorities, in remote and rural areas, and for children from poor households (UNICEF 2013, 22-23). Many children born in top immigrant-sending countries to the United States, including Mexico and Guatemala, have substantial unregistered populations. Seven million individuals in Mexico in 2012 and an estimated 10 percent of Guatemala’s population in 2018 lacked proof of nationality (Mercado Asencio 2012; González 2018). Although Mexico has taken steps to address this challenge in recent years, birth registration remains a particular problem for street children, single-parent families in rural areas, indigenous children, and the children of migrants, especially those without documentation. Such persons may not be able to travel to municipal offices or afford registration fees, and may face language barriers. They may also face difficulties working in the formal sector and be particularly likely to migrate to the United States in search of economic opportunity (Mercado Asencio 2012). Five-year data from the American Community Survey suggests that 13,329 non-citizen residents from Mexico, Guatemala, and El Salvador speak indigenous languages at home. It is likely that a nontrivial number of these individuals are “doubly undocumented.” b. Children born in refugee camps or urban settings in countries without birthright citizenship Children born to stateless or refugee parents are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. Many refugee-hosting countries across the world either lack birthright citizenship or limit it to those meeting residency or ethnic criteria. Of the top eight refugee-hosting nations in 2018 – Turkey, Pakistan, Uganda, Sudan, Germany, Iran, Lebanon, and Bangladesh– none currently grant citizenship automatically to children born to refugees, although Pakistan’s prime minister has pledged to extend citizenship to Afghan refugees (UNHCR 2019b, 17; Stubley and Baynes 2018). In cases where their parents are stateless, children born in such countries often become stateless themselves. In other cases, children may be entitled to their parents’ nationality. However, obtaining official recognition of children’s nationality is impractical in some cases and impossible in others. This is the case for Syrian children, for example, who must be registered in Syria in order to obtain Syrian 38