Nepali-speaking groups, or Lhotshampas, have lived in southern Bhutan since the 19th century, when they were contracted by the government to clear forests and build rice terraces (Hutt 2005, 45). Lhotshampas were granted citizenship by Bhutan’s 1958 Citizenship Act. In 1985, however, the Bhutanese government instituted strict nationality criteria that applied retroactively. These reforms stripped Bhutanese citizenship from all Nepali speakers who could not prove residence in Bhutan in 1958. While some were permitted to apply following a census in 1985 through 1989, many remained stateless (DOS 2017b, 9-10). Since the late 1980s, Bhutan has expelled over 100,000 Lhotshampa to Nepal (ISI 2014, 80). Bhutanese refugees in Nepal are not permitted to apply for Nepalese citizenship (DOS 2017h). It is estimated that 1,000 stateless families remain in Bhutan (DOS 2017b, 10). Nepali speakers born in Bhutan who arrived in the United States in 1986 or later are thus potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. Statelessness is also exacerbated by Bhutan’s nationality laws. In order for children to become Bhutanese citizens, both of their parents must be Bhutanese citizens. Unwed mothers are sometimes unable to prove the identity of their child’s father (DOS 2017b, 10). As a result, some Bhutanese-born children, regardless of their ethnic group, are stateless. Bhutanese-born children born to single Bhutanese mothers or with at least one foreign parent are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. The Rohingya are a Muslim, linguistically-distinct ethnic minority from the Rakhine State in Myanmar. The country’s 1982 Citizenship Act excluded Rohingya from Burmese citizenship, rendering over one million people stateless (ISI 2014, 87). The Burmese government does not recognize them as an official minority group. Instead, it considers them unauthorized immigrants from Bangladesh (Albert and Chatzky 2018). The Rohingya face widespread discrimination, including restrictions on employment, education, access to health, family planning, and freedom of movement (ibid.). In 2017, following clashes in Rakhine State, the Burmese government mounted a campaign that destroyed hundreds of villages and forced hundreds of thousands of Rohingya to flee Myanmar (ibid.). At present, Rohingyas reside in many countries, including Bangladesh, Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the UAE (British Broadcasting Corporation 2018). Most Rohingya in these countries are barred from naturalization in their countries of residence. Small numbers of Rohingya refugees have been resettled in the United States. Rohingya residing in the United States are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. The Rohingya face widespread discrimination, including restrictions on employment, education, access to health, family planning, and freedom of movement. 24