There have in addition been significant steps by an appreciable number of States— including in response to UNHCR’s #ibelong campaign—to resolve the status of large groups of people left stateless in their country of long-term residence; whether by implementing the obligations in the Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons to facilitate naturalisation,71 or by adopting measures to prevent and reduce statelessness among both children and adults, in line with the obligations of the Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness.72 2.2. Loss and deprivation of nationality and the right to due process of law These moves to reduce statelessness, on both an individual and a collective basis, have been countered by the dramatic expansion in the use of powers to deprive a person of nationality. Even as provisions for automatic loss of nationality on acquisition of another have been repealed, with the increasing tolerance of dual nationality, provisions permitting deprivation by decision of the authorities have multiplied.73 The application of such provisions has also rapidly expanded—especially as a punishment for (alleged) threats to national security, but also on grounds of fraud or misrepresentation in the context of an application for naturalisation.74 There has been a corresponding increase in scholarship on the invocation of deprivation provisions, seeing a trend to ‘renationalise’ citizenship as a privilege and not a right. In this, the liberalising impact of tolerance of dual nationality has paradoxical effects, increasing vulnerability to denationalisation and to statelessness, based on the presumed—but not necessarily actual—dual nationality of those with ancestral connections to another country.75 The prohibition on arbitrary deprivation of nationality was included in the UDHR as a direct response to the denationalisations carried out by Germany and France before and during the Second World War.76 More specifics were provided in 1961 by the Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness, prohibiting deprivation of nationality in violation of basic due process safeguards.77 The most dramatic acts of denationalisation in the era of the UN have accordingly received condemnation from those supranational courts that have had jurisdiction to hear such cases. The claims commission established to determine loss and damage relating to the secession of Eritrea from Ethiopia in 1993 emphasised not only the avoidance of 71 Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (adopted 28 September 1954, entered into force 6 June 1960) 360 UNTS 117, art 32. 72 T Molnár, ‘A Fresh Examination of Facilitated Naturalisation as a Solution for Stateless Persons’ in L van Waas and M Khanna (eds), Solving Statelessness (Wolf Legal Publishers 2017); UNHCR, ‘Good Practices Paper – Action 1 (n 69). 73 P Wautelet, ‘La perte de nationalité à la croisée des chemins: entre déclin et renaissance’ in S Corneloup and É Pataut (eds), Perdre sa nationalité (Editions Dalloz 2024). 74 L Bingham and N Arnpriester, ‘Unmaking Americans: Insecure Citizenship in the United States’ (Open Society Justice Initiative, 2019); Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion and GLOBALCIT, European University Institute, ‘Instrumentalising Citizenship in the Fight Against Terrorism: How Have Deprivation Powers Evolved since 9/11?’ (2022); L van der Baaren, M Gerdes and M Vink, ‘Waves of Securitisation: The Rise, Fall and Resurgence of Citizenship Stripping Regulations in Europe, 1960–2022’ (2025) 7 Statelessness & Citizenship Review 31. 75 A Macklin, ‘Sticky Citizenship’ in R Howard-Hassmann and M Walton-Roberts (eds), The Human Right to Citizenship: A Slippery Concept (University of Pennsylvania Press 2015) 223; L Zedner, ‘Citizenship Deprivation, Security and Human Rights’ (2016) 18 EJML 222; É Fargues, ‘The Revival of Citizenship Deprivation in France and the UK as an Instance of Citizenship Renationalisation’ (2017) 21 Citizenship Studies 984; L van Waas and S Jaghai, ‘All Citizens Are Created Equal, but Some Are More Equal than Others’ (2018) 65 NILR 413; É Fargues, E Winter and MJ Gibney (eds), When States Take Rights Back: Citizenship Revocation and Its Discontents (Routledge 2024); R Pougnet, ‘Retour de la déchéance de nationalité au XXIe siècle’ in Corneloup and Pataut (eds), Perdre sa nationalité (n 73) 85. 76 MS McDougal, HD Lasswell and L Chen, ‘Nationality and Human Rights: The Protection of the Individual in External Arenas’ (1974) 83 YaleLJ 900, 956–58. 77 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (n 23) art 8(4).