Policy brief Citizens without states The implications of non-recognition for people in de facto states Theo Tindall November 2023 Key messages International non-recognition of de facto states has clear negative political, social and economic effects on civilians living in those territories. International approaches to engaging de facto states and authorities remain ad hoc. However, the range of policies adopted by international actors under the umbrella of ‘engagement without recognition’ indicates that there is greater scope for engaging de facto states than the limits of non-recognition would suggest. There is significant room for further research into the political viability of different approaches to engagement with de facto states, and for developing policies to address gaps and inconsistencies in current forms of engagement with de facto states.