The Shifting Parameters of Nationality 277 as being for the good of the nation, thus again invoking the sense of an overarching community. The following democratization wave implied a further shift from subjects of a monarch to citizens of a self-governing nation. It is exactly in relation to the emerging nation-states that different visions about what holds the nation together have been developed. It is here that the often referred to distinction between ethnic and civic nationalism finds its place. 3 Citizenship as Membership in a Nation‑State: Legal and Substantive Citizenship Since the state, ‘the nation-state’, is still the central reference point for discussions about citizenship, the obvious relation to ‘nationalism’, national identity and nationhood needs to be acknowledged.46 Indeed, citizenship has been argued to be bound up with nationhood and national identity.47 Importantly, the definition of ‘a nation’ is a question of choice, of ‘public narratives’: a nation can be defined on an ethnic ethnographic basis but also on a more inclusive, open, voluntarist basis.48 Whereas an ethnic nation is defined by common language, culture and traditions and is rather ascribed, a civic nation is constituted by all those who subscribe to a political creed and consent to be bound by the same rules of conduct and principles.49 In the latter sense, the state, membership of the state, the common citizenship, creates the nation, whereas in the former sense the pre-existing nation creates the state.50 Similarly, in relation to the state as reference point different theories of citizenship have been developed, reflecting different visions of the state, and of the community making up the state. Speaking to the interrelation between the underlying rational of citizenship, the vision of the community making up the state and conditions for acquiring citizenship, these different theories translate in differences regarding modes of acquiring citizenship, as is particularly visible in naturalization requirements.51 Relatedly, these different theories of citizenship also translate in different approaches to optimizing the integration of migrants. Theories often distinguished in this respect include communitarian, republican and liberal theories.52 As communitarian theories see the state as a community of character, the emphasis is more on sameness (and assimilation), whereas liberal theories focus more on the protection of the individual, thus leaving more scope for different ethnic identities as long 46 Orgad (2017), p. 345. Brubaker (1992), p 182. 48 Brubaker (2004), pp. 117, 123. See also Miller (1995) where he points out that a nation’s distinctive character can be to encompass a diversity of ethnic groups and Anderson (2017) who sees nations as imagined communities. 49 Orgad (2017), pp. 345–346. 50 Ignatieff (1987). 51 See Orgad (2017), pp. 344–345. 52 See also Honohan (2017). 47 123