Mapping Minorities’ Vulnerability to Hate Speech a privilege shared by all. In order to maintain the status quo in their favour, some dominant groups have used nationality as a means of marginalising minority groups. This plain reality goes beyond the question of compliance with international human rights standards and instruments. In some countries discrimination, hate speech, related stigmas and false perceptions about minority groups are rooted so deeply in the majority society that it is difficult to shift the public discourses to the positive. This is especially the case in the context of social media, where it remains very difficult to moderate discussions in all languages and keep hateful comments and content under control. The problem is that the more hate speech remains unreported/unremoved on Facebook, the more minorities may become targets of violence on the ground. Furthermore, online and offline hate speech targeting ethnic/religious minorities are often conducive to systematic discrimination, exclusion and eventual denationalisation and vice versa; stateless minorities may easily become targets of hate speech in the absence of any state protection and popular representation. Therefore, considering the very harmful long-term implications of hate speech both on the individual and societal level and based on the outcomes of Facebook’s insufficient efforts to effectively address hate speech spread on its platform, the adoption of strong anti-hate speech laws — designed to protect the human rights of minorities criminalising hate speech in line with international human rights standards, including online hate speech — throughout the Asian continent must be part of any effective collective response to hate speech incidents, as well as the adoption of national action plans to address hate speech in partnership with civil society. This would require a coordinated regional approach that could tackle the root causes and drivers of hate speech, as well as its impact on victims and societies in a comprehensive manner. In a further attempt to prevent discrimination, hate speech and abuses against stateless minority groups and those who may be at high risk of statelessness, inter-group and inter-religious dialogue must be given priority at the very local, domestic and regional levels to be able to address the root causes and drivers of hate speech. In these pursuits, regional actors — in the case of Myanmar, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (‘ASEAN’) and in relation to India the Dialogue Mechanisms between India and ASEAN — who are politically motivated by their interest to maintain regional stability, could intervene as mediators reconciling the parties and influencing the nationalist agendas of the concerned states. If left unaddressed, hate speech, human rights violations and the escalation of violence may have further implications on regional stability. Therefore, in order to address the situations at hand, the governments of Myanmar and India should be put under international pressure to amend their nationality legislation in such a way to include the mentioned stateless minorities in the body of their citizens, allow facilitated naturalisation of those who were excluded from the list of citizens and prevent future cases of statelessness. To this end, developing effective forms of popular and legal representation for minorities will also be an important element in their empowerment. 23