Burkina Faso began in the late 1980s, the trend and phenomenon of “return” really came to a head after the outbreak of politico-military tensions in 1999 and civil war in 2002. A study conducted among “returnees” in 2010 revealed that many Burkinabè born in Côte d’Ivoire are establishing deep roots in multiple locations and sustainably investing in both countries, their “host” country, i.e. Côte d’Ivoire, as well as their “country of origin,” Burkina Faso.148 A new phenomenon is increasingly emerging of “circular mobility,” “divided migrants,” or those who establish “transnational multiresidences,” with family and business ties in both countries. 149 How does a person of “Burkinabè origin” establish that he or she is in fact a Burkinabè citizen? Nationality certificates are the primary legal form of proof of Burkinabè nationality. They can only be obtained through the civil courts in Burkina Faso; in other words, there is no way to obtain a Burkinabè nationality certificate abroad.150 In practice, there are two different requirements to obtain a Burkinabè nationality certificate. Those born in Burkina Faso to at least one parent also born in Burkina Faso are to provide a copy of their birth certificate plus a copy of the birth certificate of the relevant parent. Those born abroad must proffer a copy of their birth certificate and the certificate of nationality of their Burkinabè parent.151 As for national ID cards, which have been biometric since 2004, Burkinabè authorities also distinguish levels of proof, with more stringent requirements placed on those not born in Burkina Faso.152 In November 2013, Burkina Faso began issuing biometric consular identification cards for its nationals living in Côte d’Ivoire.153 A person must provide a copy of his/her birth certificate, either a Burkinabè ID card, passport, or prior version of a Burkinabè consular card obtained in Côte d’Ivoire, and must pay a fee of 7,000 CFA Francs. The new biometric consular cards are valid for three years and former hand-written consular cards ceased to be valid in 2014.154 How easy or difficult it is for Burkinabè of the diaspora to obtain these documents in practice? The baseline requirement in all cases is that an individual at least possess proof of birth registration. Beyond that, it appears that obtaining documents is sometimes easy, sometimes hard. Many Burkinabè in Côte d’Ivoire have successfully obtained the new biometric consular ID cards.155 That said, others have not been able to obtain biometric Burkinabè consular cards, most often for lack of possession of a birth certificate. Consular delegates at the local level continue to exercise some level of discretion. For example, some will accept that someone is a Burkinabè national based on a birth certificate alone, without any other documentary proof of family ties to 148 Sihé Neya, De la Migration à la Circulation, le Cas des Migrants Burkinabè « partagés » entre le Burkina Faso et la Côte d’Ivoire, International Migration Institute, 2010. 149 Id. 150 Code de la Famille et de la Nationalité [Burkina Faso] 1996, Articles 228-230. 151 Ministère de la Justice, des Droits Humains, et de la Protection Civique [Burkina Faso], Certificat de Nationalité. 152 Burkinabè ID cards can be obtained from police stations throughout the country. Those born in Burkina Faso must provide a copy of their birth certificate, whereas those born abroad must provide a copy of their certificate of nationality. Chronique du Gouvernement [Burkina Faso], L’Identification sans équivoque des personnes physiques, une composante essentielle pour le renforcement de l’Etat de droit et le développement économique d’un pays, 29 October 2013. 153 Prior hand-written consular cards from regional representatives were disparaged for being untrustworthy. 154 They can be obtained from consulates in Abidjan, Bouaké, and Soubré or from mobile registration teams. Le Patriote, La Grande Interview: SEM Justin Koutaba: Toutes les Conditions sont Réunies pour un Deuxième Miracle, 19 November 2013. 155 Ironically, Burkinabè migrants could vote in Côte d’Ivoire from 1960 through 1990, but cannot vote in elections held in Burkina Faso to this day. Sylvie Bredeloup, Stratégies Identitaires et Migratoires des Ressortissants Africains Résidant à Abidjan : Quelle Evolution Possible ? in Frontières de la Citoyenneté et Violence Politique en Côte d’Ivoire, Jean-Bernard Ouedraogo and Ebrima Sall (Eds.), Dakar: CODESRIA, 2008, pp. 125-148. 42