Summary Like Jews in Germany and elsewhere in Europe in the 1930s and 1940s and the Tutsi in Rwanda in the 1990s, the Myanmar military and past government authorities continue to rely on identification documentation to commit international crimes against Rohingya, an ethnic minority indigenous to western Myanmar. These crimes particularly took shape in 2016 and 2017 when the Myanmar military led widespread attacks on the Rohingya civilian population. Soldiers massacred and killed women, men, and children, committed mass rape, razed hundreds of villages, and forced more than 700,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh, where they joined more than 250,000 other Rohingya refugees and remain in squalid conditions. The Myanmar junta continues to confine another 125,000 Rohingya to more than 20 internment camps—modern concentration camps in Rakhine State established by Myanmar authorities in 2012. For the past half-century, union-and state-level discriminatory laws, policies, and practices in Myanmar marginalized and dehumanized Rohingya people. For example, in 1982, Myanmar passed a citizenship law that effectively denied Rohingya equal access to citizenship rights, progressively creating the world’s largest stateless population within a single country’s border. A litany of pre-genocidal human rights violations followed, including strict denials of freedom of movement, education, access to health care, and livelihoods. Such discriminatory laws, policies, and practices have rendered the vast majority of Rohingya at high risk of abuse and large-scale mass atrocities. Following the 2016 and 2017 Myanmar military-led attacks on Rohingya civilians, Fortify Rights, a U.N. Fact-Finding Mission, successive U.N. special rapporteurs, and governments—including most recently the U.S. government—as well as others determined that these attacks amount to the crime of genocide. And like past genocides, the pernicious use of identity documentation played a role in the genocide and must be addressed to prevent future crimes. Chapter II of this report exposes how, since a deadly attempted military coup d’état in Myanmar launched on February 1, 2021, the Myanmar junta continues to deny the existence of the Rohingya and is forcing or coercing Rohingya to accept National Verification Cards (NVCs)—a document that confers no rights and identifies Rohingya as “foreigners” in Myanmar. 24 Dead bodies of Tutsi massacre victims inside the vestibule of a Catholic church in Rukara in Rwanda in 1994. ©Jack Picone, 1994