Introduction Sunnis, Hazaras were barred in practice from holding office, enrolling in universities and joining the armed force even until the 1970s. Their social, economic and political situation improved during communist rule, but after the civil war began in 1992 and subsequent takeover by the Taliban in 1998, it worsened—with massacres, forced conversions and eviction. The post-Taliban years had been a respite, but with the IS on the rise in the region, Hazaras are again being persecuted as ‘infidels’. The Ismailis are a small minority within the Shias and as such are among the most oppressed religious minorities in Afghanistan. One branch of the Shias, the Imami, consider the Ismailis to be ‘unclean’ while a majority of Sunnis consider Shias to be ‘unreal’ Muslims. Ismailis are still excluded and barred from positions of political authority. Historically, the attitude toward Hindus-Sikhs in Afghanistan has been tolerant, though they have had to pay a non-Muslim tax to the state. The civil war in 1992 upended that status and they became prime targets for kidnappings, extortion and banditry. Their temples were destroyed and they were harassed to an extent that it led to a mass exodus by them to India and other places. Their situation worsened after the Taliban took control in 1996 with HindusSikhs even being forced to wear yellow badges to distinguish them from Muslims. After the Taliban fell, many Hindus-Sikhs returned to Afghanistan but with the emergence of IS, their security has deteriorated. They have been constantly targeted by violent Islamist groups, prompting many to move to India. Afghanistan is also home to refugees from Pakistan’s North Waziristan. But, due to a boundary dispute between the two countries, Afghanistan has not recognised this group as refugees, preferring instead to call them internally displaced people but without providing them with the required identification necessary to access government services. (It should be noted that a discussion of the larger Afghan refugee population takes place in the Pakistan and India chapters.) Bangladesh Bangladesh has no specific law on statelessness, and a stateless person is regarded as a foreigner. This chapter identifies the xxxv