ENDNOTES 129 130 131 132 133 134 Commissioner for Refugees for the Office of the High Commissioner for Home Rights’ Compilation Report Universal Periodic Review: Brunei Darussalam’ (October 2018) 3-4. <https://www.refworld.org/ topic,50ffbce524d,50ffbce5268,5ccab7d67,0,,,BRN. html>; Lyma Nguyen and Christoph Sperfledt, ‘A Boat Without Anchors’ (JRS Cambodia, 2012); Stateless Persons in Indonesia: Consequences and Legal Protection’ (2022) 11(1) Udayana Master Law Journal 76; Supra 90; Amanda Flaim ‘Problems of Evidence, Evidence of Problems: Expanding Citizenship and Reproducing Statelessness among Highlanders in Northern Thailand’ in Benjamin Lawrence and Jacqueline Stevens (eds), Citizenship in Question: Evidentiary Birthright and Statelessness (Duke University Press, 2017); Boat People SOS, ‘Consequences of Statelessness on Hmong Christians: The Children of Subdivision 181 in Vietnam – A Case Study’ (30 December 2021) <https://www.ohchr. org/sites/default/files/2022-01/Boat-People-SOS.pdf>. Lyanne Togiba and Michele Cheng, ‘Life in Limbo: The Manus Babies who Face a Stateless Future’, The Guardian (Online, 13 December 2018) <https://www.theguardian. com/australia-news/2018/dec/13/life-in-limbo-themanus-babies-who-face-a-stateless-future>. See e.g., Jonathan Simon and Heather Alexander, ‘No Port, No Passport: Why Submerged States Can Have No Nationals’ (2017) 26(2) Washington International law Journal 307; Jane McAdam, Climate Change, Forced Migration and International Law (Oxford University Press, 2012); Jane McAdam et al, International Law and SeaLevel Rise: Forced Migration and Human Rights’ (FNI Report 1/2016, Fridtjof Nansen Institute and the Kaldor Centre for International refugee Law); UNHCR, SFS and IMO, ‘A Toolbox: Planning Relocations to Protect People from Climate and Environmental Change’ (Report, 2017); Barbara Buckinx, Matt Edbrooke and Rana Ibrahem, ‘Self-Determination and Sea-Level Rise’ (Policy Paper, Liechtenstein Institute on Self-Determination, April 2021); Jenny Grote Stoutenburg, ‘When Do States Disappear?’ in Michael B Gerrard and Gregory E Wannier (eds), Threatened Island Nations: Legal Implication of Rising Seas and a Changing Climate (Cambridge University Press, 2013); Maxine A Burkett, ‘The Nation Ex-Situ’ in Michael B Gerrard and Gregory E Wannier (eds), Threatened Island Nations: Legal Implication of Rising Seas and a Changing Climate (Cambridge University Press, 2013); Jennifer Saxon, ‘Disappearing States, Rising Statelessness: The Twin Crises Just Around the Corner’, RLI Blog (Online, 14 December 2020) <https://rli.blogs.sas.ac.uk/2020/12/14/ disappearing-states-rising-statelessness-the-twin-crisesjust-around-the-corner/>. See Peter McMullin Centre on Statelessness, Norwegian Refugee Council and UNHCR, ‘Statelessness and Climate Change’ (October 2021) <https://law.unimelb.edu.au/__ data/assets/pdf_file/0003/3945081/Statelessness-andClimate-Change.pdf>. See further Barbara Buckinx, Matt Edbrooke and Rana Ibrahem, ‘Self-Determination and Sea-Level Rise’ (Policy Paper, Liechtenstein Institute on Self-Determination, April 2021) 5–7. With the notable exception of the Maldives, with the highest elevation point of the Maldives being 2.4 metres above sea-level, the impacts of climate-induced sea-level rise and in turn the potential risks of statelessness caused by ‘disappearing states’ has been discussed in detail. CEDAW, ‘Concluding Observations on the Third Periodic ENDNOTES 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 Report of Afghanistan’ UN Doc CEDAW/C/AFG/CO/3 (10 March 2020) [37]–[38]; US Department of State, ‘Nepal 2021: Human Rights Report’ (April 2022) 20; see for example, ‘Deena and Charulatha — Nepal’, Equality now (7 July 2022) <https://www.equalitynow.org/stories/deenaand-charulatha-nepal/>. CRC, ‘Concluding Observations on the Combined Third and Fourth Periodic Reports of India’ UN Doc CRC/C/ IND/CO/3-4 (7 July 2014) [43]–[44]; UNHCR, ‘Submission for the Officer of the Hight Commissioner for Human Rights Compilation Report, Universal Periodic Review: India’ (August 2016) 2. Xari Jalil, ‘50 Years of Statelessness: The Bengalis of Macchar Colony’, VoicePK (27 December 2021) <https:// voicepk.net/2021/12/50-years-of-statelessnessthe-bengalis-of-macchar-colony/>; Imkaan Welfare Organisation, Nationality For All and Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion, ‘Joint Submission to the Human Rights Council Universal Periodic Review: Pakistan’ (2022) <https://files.institutesi.org/UPR42_ Pakistan.pdf>; See Rumaisa Khalil Uddin, ‘State-Less? The Harsh Reality of Ethnic Bengalis Living in Pakistan’, Siasat (1 October 2021) <https://blog.siasat.pk/ethnicbengalis-living-in-pakistan/>; Hajira Maryam, ‘Stateless and Helpless: The Plight of Ethnic Bengalis in Pakistan’, Al Jazeera ((29 September 2021) <https://www.aljazeera. com/features/2021/9/29/stateless-ethnic-bengalispakistan>. Australia Indonesia Partnership for Justice, ‘AIPJ Baseline Study on Legal Identity: Indonesia’s Missing Millions’ (Report, 2014) 3; See Jessica Ball, Leslie Butt and Harriot Beazley, ‘Birth Registration and Protection for Children of Transnational Labour Migrants in Indonesia’ (2017) 15(3) Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 305. Brian Barbour, Supra 90 at 6. UN Statistics Division, Coverage of Birth and Death Registration’ (February 2021) https://unstats.un.org/unsd/ demographic-social/crvs/; UNICEF, ‘Birth Registration Data Set’ (May 2022) <https://data.unicef.org/resources/ dataset/percentage-children-age-5-whose-birthsregistered-sex-place-residence-household-wealthquintile/>. See UN Statistics Division, Coverage of Birth and Death Registration’ (February 2021) <https://unstats.un.org/ unsd/demographic-social/crvs/>. US Department of State, ‘China 2021: Human Rights Report’ (April 2022) 60; Samantha A Vortherms, ‘China’s Missing Children: Political Barriers to Citizenship through the Household Registration System’ (2019) 238 The Chine Quarterly 309. Stephanie Gordon, ‘China’s Hidden Children’, The Diplomat (online, 12 March 2015) <https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/chinas-hiddenchildren/>; Coco Liu and Shanshan Chen, ‘Lost Lives: The Battle of China’s Invisible Children to Recover Missed Years’, Reuters (online, 14 December 2016) <https:// www.reuters.com/article/us-china-children-policyidUSKBN1431CX>. Nationality Law of the People’s Republic of China (1980) ss 4–5; Nationality Law No 147 (1950) s 2(1) (Japan); Law of Mongolia on Citizenship (1955) s 7(1)–(3); Nationality Law of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (2017) s 5; Nationality Act (2016) s 2(1)(1) (South Korea). Nationality Law No 147 (1950) s 2(1) (Japan); Nationality Act (2016) s 2(1)(1) (South Korea). Nationality Law of the People’s Republic of China (1980) ss 4–5; Law of Mongolia on Citizenship (1955) s 7(1); 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 Nationality Law of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (2017) ss 5, 7. Chae Mims, ‘The Statelessness of the Children of North Korean Women Defectors in China’ (2021) 24(2) Human Rights Brief 98; Choo Chin Low, ‘Report on Citizenship Law: China and Taiwan’ (Country Report, EUDO Citizenship Observatory, 2016); Study Group on Statelessness in Japan, ‘Typology of Stateless Persons in Japan’ (Report, UNHCR 2017) 126–36. Convention Relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, 1954 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 ‘Protocol relation to the Status of Refugees, 1967>(‘Refugee Convention and Protocol’). ICESCR, 1966; ICERD, 1965; CRC, 1989; CEDAW, 1979; CRPD, 2006 CEDAW (n 31). ICCPR, 1966. UNHCR, Table 5 (June 2022). Ibid. NB. The figure of 707 stateless persons is included for Japan in the table however UNHCR notes that this figures is an estimate as “The published data refers to end-2020. Statistics for end-2021 have been received by UNHCR and will be published in the coming weeks. At end-2021 there were a total of 1,508 refugees and 16,709 pending asylum-seekers and 531 stateless people.” The figure of 531 as such has been adopted. Chulhyo Kim and Seori Choi, ‘Mapping Statelessness in the Republic of Korea’ (December 2021) 77 <https:// www.refworld.org/docid/61dc11a34.html> UNHCR, Table 5 (June 2022). Samantha A Vortherms, ‘China’s Missing Children: Political Barriers to Citizenship through the Household Registration System’ (2019) 238 The China Quarterly 309; Stephanie Gordon, ‘China’s Hidden Children’, The Diplomat (online, 12 March 2015) <https://thediplomat. com/2015/03/chinas-hidden-children/>; Coco Liu and Shanshan Chen, ‘Lost Lives: The Battle of China’s Invisible Children to Recover Missed Years’, Reuters (online, 14 December 2016) <https://www.reuters.com/article/uschina-children-policy-idUSKBN1431CX>. Statistics Bureau of Japan, ‘Population Census 2020’ (June 2021) Table50. Population by Sex and Nationality (Detailed groups). South Korea provides statistics on the citizenship of international migrants annually – see KOSIS, 'International Migration of foreigners by sex and citizenship' (2021). Previous Census’ have not made publicly available data on the stateless status of foreigners and have fundamentally undercounted the number of foreigners in Korea. E-Stat, Supra note 66 US DoS, ‘Japan 2021: Human Rights Report’ (April 2022) 17. UNHCR, ‘Submission by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees for OHCHR, Compilation Report-UPR: Mongolia’ (April 2014) 2. UNHCR, Table 5 and Table 1(June 2022). China reported 303,436 refugees to UNHCR, of whom 303,100 were reportedly Vietnamese refugees who are “well integrated and receive protection from the Government of China.” Study Group on Statelessness in Japan, ‘Typology of Stateless Persons in Japan’ (UNHCR, 2017) 137. E-Stat, supra note 66 Min-Chul Hwang, ‘Exploring Marriage Migrants’ Citizenship Acquisition in South Korea’ (2015) 24(3) 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 Asia and Pacific Migration Journal 376; Susan Kneebone, ‘Transnational Marriage Migrants and Nationality: The Case of South Korea and Taiwan’ (Conference Paper, International Academic Conference, November 2017); Hee-Kang Kim, ‘Marriage Migration between South Korea and Vietnam: A Gender Perspective’ (2012) 36(3) Asian Perspective 531; Hsiao-Chuan Hsia, ‘From “Social Problem” to “Social Assets”: Geopolitical, Discursive Shifts in Children of Southeast Asian Marriage Migrants, and Mother-Child Dyadic Citizenship in Taiwan’ [2021] Citizenship Studies 1. Te-Yuan Chien, ‘Differential Human Right of Migrant Spouses Based on Nationalities in Taiwan’ (2018) 19 Asia-Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law 81. Nationality Law of the People’s Republic of China (1980) s 6; Nationality Law No 147 (1950) s 2(3) (Japan); Nationality Law of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (2017) s 5(3); Nationality Act (2016) s 2(1)(3) (South Korea). Law of Mongolia on Citizenship (1955) s 7(5). Nationality Law No 147 (1950) s 2(3) (Japan); Law of Mongolia on Citizenship (1955) s 7(4); Nationality Law of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (2017) s 5(4); Nationality Act (2016) s 2(2) (South Korea). Huang Yujia and Ye Ruolin, ‘With Few Abandoned Babies, China’s Orphanages Stand Empty’, Sixth Tone (25 March 2021) <https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1007569/withfar-fewer-abandoned-babies%2C-chinas-orphanagesstand-empty>. See also, Li Hui and Ben Blanchard, ‘China’s Unwanted Babies Once Mostly Girls, Now Mostly Sick, Disabled’, Reuters (3 February 2014). Law of Mongolia on Citizenship (1955) ss 7(5), 11, 4. see also s 12 grounds for denial of cessation do not include causing or risking statelessness. UNHCR, ‘Submission by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees for the Office of the High Commission for Human Rights, Compilation ReportUniversal Periodic Review: Mongolia’ (April 2010); UNHCR, ‘Submission by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees for the Office of the High Commission for Human Rights, Compilation ReportUniversal Periodic Review: Mongolia’ (April 2014). Chae Mims, ‘The Statelessness of the Children of North Korean Women Defectors in China’ (2021) 24(2) Human Rights Brief 98; Choo Chin Low, ‘Report on Citizenship Law: China and Taiwan’ (Country Report, EUDO Citizenship Observatory, 2016); Study Group on Statelessness in Japan, ‘Typology of Stateless Persons in Japan’ (Report, UNHCR 2017) 126–36. UNICEF, ‘Birth Registration Data Set’, Supra Ibid Epeli Hau’ofa, ‘Our Sea of Islands’ in E. Waddell, V. Naidu and E. Hau’ofa (sds.) A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands (1993) 8. See further Michelle Foster, Nicola Hard, Hélène Lambert and Jane McAdam, ‘The Future of Nationality in the Pacific: Preventing Statelessness and Nationality Loss in the context of Climate Change’ (May 2022) <https://law. unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/4119481/ The-Future-of-Nationality-in-the-Pacific_May2022.pdf>. Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia (1978) art 3(2); Naoero Citizenship Act (2017) ss 9, 12; The Constitution of the Republic of Palau (1979) art 3(2); Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea (1975) s 66; The Constitution of the Solomon Islands (1978) s 22; Nationality Act (2016) s 2 (Tonga); Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu (1980) s 11. 70 71 STATELESSNESS ENCYCLOPEDIA ASIA PACIFIC REPORT 2023