ENDNOTES ENDNOTES Endnotes 26 27 1 2 ³ 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 UNHCR, ‘Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2021’ (June 2022) 42 < https://www.unhcr.org/62a9d1494/ global-trends-report-2021 > Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion (ISI), ‘Statelessness in Numbers: 2020’ (Report, August 2020) < https://files.institutesi.org/ISI_statistics_analysis_2020. pdf >. See Central Asian Network on Statelessness < https:// centans.net/en/ >. Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (henceforth ‘Convention relating to Stateless Persons), opened for signature 28 September 1954, 360 UNTS 117 (entered into force 6 June 1960). Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (henceforth ‘Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness’), opened for signature 30 August 1961, 989 UNTS 175 (entered into force 13 December 1975). Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, opened for signature 28 July 1951, 198 UNTS 137 (entered into force 22 April 1954). Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, opened for signature 31 January 1967, 606 UNTS 267 (entered into force 4 October 1967). International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), opened for signature 16 December 1966, 993 UNTS 3 (entered into force 3 January 1976). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), opened for signature 16 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976). International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), opened for signature 7 March 1966, 6601 UNTS 195 (entered into force 4 January 1969). Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), opened for signature 18 December 1979, 1249 UNTS 13 (entered into force 3 September 1981). Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), opened for signature 20 November 1989, 1577 UNTS 3 (entered into force 2 September 1990). Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons, opened for signature 28 September 1954, 360 UNTS 117 (entered into force 6 June 1960). Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness. Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees ICESCR ICCPR CERD CEDAW CRC Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons UNHCR, ‘Persons at Risk of Statelessness in Serbia: Overview of the Current Situation and the Way Forward’ (November 2020) 11. UNHCR, ‘Guidelines on Statelessness No. 4: Ensuring Every Child’s Right to Acquire a Nationality through Articles 1-4 of the 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness’ (21 December 2012) UN Doc HCR/ GS/12/04, 6 n14. UNHCR, ‘Refugee Data Finder’ <https://www.unhcr.org/ refugee-statistics/methodology/definition/>. Expert Group on Refugee and Internally Displaced Persons Statistics, ‘International Recommendations on 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 Statelessness Statistics: Discussion Paper’ (9 February 2021) <https://egrisstats.org/wp-content/uploads/1.EIROSS-Discussion-Paper.pdf>. Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, Art 1A. See Institute of Statelessness and Inclusion, ‘Citizenship and Statelessness: (in)equality and (non)discrimination’ (2018) < https://files.institutesi.org/Statelessness-anddiscrimination.pdf>. Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness, Arts 8, 9. OHCHR, ‘The Human Rights Consequences of Citizenship Stripping in the Context of Counter-Terrorism with a Popular Application to Northeast Syria’ (February 2022) <https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/ Deprivation-of-Citizenship.docx>. See further Barbara Buckinx, Matt Edbrooke and Rana Ibrahem, ‘Self-Determination and Sea-Level Rise’ (Policy Paper, Liechtenstein Institute on Self-Determination, April 2021) 5–7. Report of the OHCHR, ‘Birth registration and the Right of Everyone to Recognition Everywhere as a Person Before the Law’ (17 June 2014) UN Doc A/HRC/27/22. The Citizenship Act (1951) s 4 (Bangladesh); Law on Nationality (1996) s 4 (Cambodia); The Pakistan Citizenship Act (1951) s 4; Nationality Act (1965) s 7 (Thailand). Citizenship of Fiji Decree (2009) s 6; Marshall Islands Constitution (1979) article XI(1)(2); The Constitution of Kiribati (1979) s 25(1); The Constitution of Tuvalu (2008) s 45(1). The Citizenship Act (1951) s 5 (Bangladesh); Law on Nationality (1996) s 4 (Cambodia); Constitution of the Federated States of Micronesia (1978) art 3(2); Citizenship of Fiji Decree (2009) s 8; Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia (2006) s 4; Nationality Law No 147 (1950) s 2(1) (Japan); Constitution of the Republic of Maldives (2008) s 9; Marshall Islands Constitution (1979) art XI(1)(2); Naoero Citizenship Act (2017) ss 9, 12; The Constitution of the Republic of Palau (1979) art 3(2); Constitution of the Independent State of Papua New Guinea (1975) s 66; The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines (1987) s IV(1)(2); Nationality Act (1965) s 7(1) (Thailand); Law on Citizenship (2002) s 8 (Timor-Leste); The Constitution of the Solomon Islands (1978) s 22; Nationality Act (2016) s 2(1) (1) (South Korea); Nationality Act (2016) s 2 (Tonga); The Constitution of Tuvalu (2008) s 45(2); Constitution of the Republic of Vanuatu (1980) s 11. Law on Citizenship of the Islamic Emirates of Afghanistan (2000) s 10; Australian Citizenship Act (2007) ss 13, 16; Laws of Bruni: Brunei Nationality (2011) s 4; Nationality Law of the People’s Republic of China (1980) ss 4, 5; The Citizenship Act (1995) ss 3-4 (India); The Constitution of Kiribati (1979) s 25; Law on Lao Nationality (1990) ss 9-10 (Laos); Constitution of Malaysia (1957) Schedule 2, Part I, s1; Law of Mongolia on Citizenship (1955) s 7(1); Constitution of Nepal (2015) ss 11–14; Citizenship Act (1997) ss 6(1), (3), 7(1) (New Zealand); Nationality Law of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (2017) ss 5–7; Citizenship Act (2004) ss 6, 7 (Samoa) see Citizenship Amendment Bill (2016) s 2 (amending s 7 of the Citizenship Act (2004) s 7(1)); Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (1965) ss 121, 122; Citizenship Act (1948) s 5(1) (Sri Lanka); The Pakistan Citizenship Act (1951) s 5; Law on Vietnamese Nationality (2008) ss 15, 16. Bhutan Citizenship Act (1985) s 2; Burma Citizenship Law (1982) s 10. Laws of Brunei: Brunei Nationality (2011) s 4; Burma Citizenship Law (1982) s 3. Maldivian Citizenship Act (1995) s 2. 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 Laws of Brunei: Brunei Nationality (2011) s 4; Constitution of Malaysia (1957) Schedule 2, Part I, s1(1); Constitution of Nepal (2015) ss 11(2)(b), 11(5); The Constitution of Kiribati (1979) s 25; Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (1965) s 121. CEDAW, ‘Concluding Observations on the Sixth Periodic Report of Maldives’ UN Doc CEDAW/C/MDV/CO/6 (23 November 2021) [35]-[36]. The Citizenship Act (1951) s 10 (Bangladesh); The Pakistan Citizenship Act (1951) s 10; Laws of Bruni: Brunei Nationality (2011) ss 3, 5(6).; The Constitution of Kiribati (1979) s 26; Constitution of Malaysia (1957) Schedule 2, Part I, s 15(1); Republic Act No.1939 (2001) ss 11-12 (the Philippines); Constitution of the Republic of Singapore (1965) s 123; Nationality Act (1965) ss 9-12 (Thailand); Constitution of Nepal (2015) ss 11. Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons (1954). Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness (1961). Refugee Convention and Protocol. CRC. CEDAW. ICCPR. ICESCR. ICERD. ISI, supra note 2. UNHCR, Table 5, (June 2022) 42. Ibid, (2,355,425). Ibid, (2,197,413). Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. See Aamir Saeed, ‘Pakistan Says Will Solve “Tough Problem” of Vaccinating Over 3 Million Stateless People’, Arab News (26 May 2021) < https://www.arabnews.pk/ node/1865021/pakistan>; Hajira Maryam. ‘Stateless and Helpless: The Plight of Ethnic Bengalis in Pakistan’, Al Jazeera (29 September 2021) <https://www.aljazeera. com/features/2021/9/29/stateless-ethnic-bengalispakistan>; Kamal Siddiqi, ‘The Hidden Ones’, The Express Tribune (27 July 2020) <https://tribune.com.pk/ story/2256814/the-hidden-ones>; ‘Pakistan — Situation of Afghan Refugees’ (European Union Agency for Asylum, May 2022) <https://coi.euaa.europa.eu/administration/ easo/PLib/2022_05_EUAA_COI_Report_Pakistan_ Situation_of_Afghan_refugees.pdf>. See Michael Hutt, Unbecoming Citizens: Culture, Nationhood, and the Flight of Refugees from Bhutan (Oxford University Press, 2005); Tang Lay Lee, ‘Refugees from Bhutan: Nationality, Statelessness and the Right to Return’ (1998) 10(1–2) International Journal of Refugee Law 118; Ben Saul, ‘Cultural Nationalism, Self-Determination and Human Rights in Bhutan’ (2000) 12(3) International journal of Refugee Law 321. However, see the ‘Persons of Undetermined Nationality’ section below regarding the sizeable population without confirmed citizenship in East Asia. Kiribati National Statistics Office, ‘2020 Population and House: General Report and Results’ (July 2021) 22, Table A-1e. Non-citizen Population by Country of Citizenship and Sex: 2020 PHC Kiribati; Vanuatu National Statistics Office, ‘2020 National Population and Housing Census’ (17 November 2021) 68 Table. 3.11: Non-Vanuatu Citizens Living in Private Households by Sex and Region of Citizenship; Statistics Bureau of Japan, ‘Population 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Census 2020’ (June 2021) Table50. Population by Sex and Nationality (Detailed groups); Laos Statistics Bureau, ‘The 4th Population and Housing Census 2015’ (2016) 123, Table P2.8 Total Foreign Population by Sex and Citizenship. Statistics Bureau of Japan, ‘Population Census 2020’ (June 2021) Table50. Population by Sex and Nationality (Detailed groups) Kiribati National Statistics Office, ‘2020 Population and House: General Report and Results’ (July 2021) 22, Table A-1e. Non-citizen Population by Country of Citizenship and Sex: 2020 PHC Kiribati; Vanuatu National Statistics Office, ‘2020 National Population and Housing Census’ (17 November 2021) 68 Table. 3.11: Non-Vanuatu Citizens Living in Private Households by Sex and Region of Citizenship; Laos Statistics Bureau, ‘The 4th Population and Housing Census 2015’ (2016) 123, Table P2.8 Total Foreign Population by Sex and Citizenship. Samantha A Vortherms, ‘China’s Missing Children: Political Barriers to Citizenship through the Household Registration System’ (2019) 238 The China Quarterly 309. Stephanie Gordon, ‘China’s Hidden Children’, The Diplomat (online, 12 March 2015) <https://thediplomat. com/2015/03/chinas-hidden-children/>; Coco Liu and Shanshan Chen, ‘Lost Lives: The Battle of China’s Invisible Children to Recover Missed Years’, Reuters (online, 14 December 2016) <https://www.reuters.com/article/uschina-children-policy-idUSKBN1431CX>. E-Stat, ‘Statistics of Foreign Residents (Former Statistics of Registered Foreigners)’ (December 2021) <https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/ files?page=1&layout= datalist&toukei=00250012&tstat= 000001018034&cycle=1&year= 20210&month=24101212&tclass1= 000001060399> US Department of State, ‘Japan 2021: Human Rights Report’ (April 2022) 17. UNHCR, ‘Submission by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees for the Office of the High Commission for Human Rights, Compilation ReportUniversal Periodic Review: Mongolia’ (April 2014) 2. US Department of State, ‘Papua New Guinea 2021: Human rights Report’ (April 2022) 11. See Talha Abdul Rahman, ‘Identifying the “Outsider”: An Assessment of Foreigners Tribunals in the Indian State of Assam’ (2020) 2(1) Statelessness & Citizenship Review 112; Right to Nationality & Citizenship Network, ‘Marginalised and Impoverished in Assam’ (Report, January 2021); J Field et al, ‘Bureaucratic Failings in the National Register of Citizens Process Have Worsen Life for the Vulnerable in Assam’ (Report, 2019); Regina Menachery Paulose, ‘A New Dawn? Statelessness and Assam’ (2019) 7(1) Groningen Journal of International Law 99; Amnesty International, ‘Designed to Exclude: How India’s Courts are Allowing Foreigners Tribunals to Render People Stateless in Assam’ (Report, 2019); Human Rights Watch, ‘“Shoot the Traitors” Discrimination Against Muslims under India’s New Citizenship Policy’ (Report, April 2020); Vatsal Raj, ‘The National Register of Citizens and India’s Commitment Deficit to International Law’ LSE Blog (Online, 10 August 2020) <https://blogs. lse.ac.uk/humanrights/2020/08/10/the-nationalregister-of-citizens-and-indias-commitment-deficit-tointernational-law/>; Anruadha Sen Mookerjee, ‘How the National Citizenship Registration in Assam is Shaping a New National Identity in India’, The Conversation (Online, 30 August 2019) https://theconversation.com/how-thenational-citizenship-registration-in-assam-is-shaping-a- 66 67 STATELESSNESS ENCYCLOPEDIA ASIA PACIFIC REPORT 2023