is important as well given that studies suggest that the majority of the population wishes to remain on their islands.85 Research here too remains in the early stages, however.86 While some initial efforts are under way, large-scale initiatives appear to be hampered by a number of constraints including serious lack of funding.87 Although so-called low-cost ‘no-regrets’ measures should have some benefits, even if projected climate change does not materialize,88 major projects such as sea walls are expensive. The Maldives built a wall to protect Male, its capital, but has expressed concern at the initial cost, reportedly 70 million USD or more than 10 per cent of GDP at the time of completion,89 as well as ongoing expenditures for its upkeep and continued seepage of sea water despite the wall.90 It should also be noted that the small island States most vulnerable to extinction are members of the group of Small Island Developing States (SIDS), and Kiribati and Tuvalu, amongst others, belong to the group of Least Developed Countries (LDCs).91. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/08/0829_wiredutch.html (last accessed 25 January 2011); M. Rosenberg, ‘Polders and dykes of the Netherlands: The reclamation of land in the Netherlands’, About.com. Geography, available online at: http://geography.about.com/od/specificplacesofinterest/a/dykes.htm (last accessed 25 January 2011). 85 See for example Mortreux and Barnett, note 11 above, 109-111; Gemenne and Shen, ‘Tuvalu and New Zealand: Case study report’, supra, note 11 above, 13-14. See also, Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Marshall Islands to the United Nations, New York, note 4 above. 86 See IPCC, Climate change 2007, note 5 above, 712. See also ‘Vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in small island developing States’, note 69 above, which speaks of a range of planned adaptation actions and projects, although a considerable number relate to increasing awareness and the carrying out of assessments. The report also highlights a number of major constraints; ibid, 17-24. See also relevant ‘National adaptation programmes for action (NAPA)’ developed for the Least Developed Countries under the UNFCCC, available for Kiribati, Tuvalu, and other States, at http://unfccc.int/national_reports/napa/items/2719.php (last accessed on 25 January 2011). A policy note by the World Bank further highlights the importance of engaging in preventive actions to manage risks from natural hazards rather than rebuilding once disasters have struck, particularly from a perspective of cost-effectiveness. It outlines measures which should be undertaken in this regard, and underlines the importance of an enabling environment for such ‘risk management of natural hazards’ to be implemented. World Bank, ‘Not if but when: Adapting to natural hazards in the Pacific islands region: A policy note’, 2006, available online at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPACIFICISLANDS/Resources/Natural-Hazards-report.pdf (last accessed 25 January 2011). 87 There appear to be considerable obstacles to a number of possible funding mechanisms being discussed, including possible insurance schemes for small islands. See ‘Vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in small island developing States’, note 69 above, 26-27. See also World Bank, note 86 above, 34-35. Funding made available through the framework of the UNFCCC as well appears limited to date. Thus a total of 26 million USD was provided to date through the Least Developed Country Fund and the Special Climate Change Fund, comparable to a week’s spending under the United Kingdom’s flood defense programme, although 279 million USD have been pledged for disbursement over several years. Even this amount represents a fraction of requirements. Summary of the human development report 2007/2008, available online at: http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_Summary_English.pdf (last accessed 23 May 2011), 25. 88 See World Bank, note 86 above, V. Kolmannskog, ‘No regrets’ (2008) 31 Forced Migration Review: Climate Change and Displacement, 46. More research in this area may be useful, see R. Heltberg, P. Bennett Siegel, S. Lau Jorgensen, ‘Addressing human vulnerability to climate change: Toward a ‘no-regrets’ approach’, (2009) 19 Global environmental change, 89-99. 89 Submission of the Maldives to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights under Human Rights Council Resolution 7/23’, 25 September 2008, available online at: http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/climatechange/docs/submissions/Maldives_Submission.pdf (last accessed 25 January 2011). 90 Delegate of the Maldives during meeting on ‘Climate change, human rights and forced human displacement’, co-sponsored by UNHCR and Displacement Solutions, Canberra, Australia, 10 December 2008. 91 See the listing of Small Island Developing States prepared by the UN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States, available online at: http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/sid/list.htm (last accessed 25 January 2011). 11