Part I. Introduction and Context In the decades before World War I, Europe saw a time sometimes characterized as an “age of security”.283 Europe was relatively secure because war was not tearing up the continent as it had before the Congress of Vienna in 1815. At the same time, however, the continent saw rapid developments and growing tensions, which culminated into ‘the roaring twenties’ in the beginning of the 20th century. This included major economic growth and significant changes to daily life by widespread use of, for instance, phones and automobiles. Also, Wall Street crash in 1929 and the ensuing Great Depression caused great hardship and new tensions between groups of people within states and beyond borders. But what had happened before the first World War? The nineteenth century in Europe was an age of industrial development. Important to this development were the “burgeoning fortunes of economic liberalism” which “made free circulation appear an unavoidable necessity”.284 The possibilities of investment and trade made freedom of movement imperative; a more welcoming atmosphere towards foreigners by states, which included the relaxation of passport controls, recognized the important role of them in this.285 Against this background, freedom of movement of people also increased, in particular for the lower classes of society. Nonetheless, “the expansion of legal and bureaucratic mechanisms to control migration developed in tandem with the liberal argument that progress depended on the capacity of individuals and capital to flow freely around the world”.286 Nineteenth-century Europe also saw changes in ways of governing people. Political authority was no longer that of kings or other authoritarian leaders, but of parliaments.287 These parliaments, however, did usually not represent everyone – only (some) men – as suffrage was often subject to further criteria, such as gender, age, the amount of taxes paid and residence in a certain place for a specific period of time.288 Over the course of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century, suffrage was extended by parliaments to all men and women – a development that has been attributed by some to the economic growth of that time.289 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 56 Jan-Werner Müller, Contesting Democracy. Political Ideas in Twentieth-Century Europe (Yale University Press 2011) 9. John Torpey, The Invention of the Passport. Surveillance, Citizenship and the State (Cambridge University Press 2000) 56. John Torpey, ‘The Great War and the Birth of the Modern Passport System’ in Jane Caplan & John Torpey (eds), Documenting Individual Identity. The Development of State Practices in the Modern World (Princeton University Press 2001) 256. Mira L Siegelberg, Statelessness. A Modern History (Harvard University Press 2020) 15. Jan-Werner Müller, Contesting Democracy. Political Ideas in Twentieth-Century Europe (Yale University Press 2011) 11. Cf Stefano Bartolini, ‘Enfranchisement, Equality and Turnout in the European Democratisation Process: A Preliminary Comparative Analysis’ (1996) EUI Working Paper No. 121 <https://www.icps. cat/archivos/WorkingPapers/WP_I_121.pdf?noga=1> accessed 12 September 2021. Roger D Congleton, ‘Economic Development and Democracy: Does Industrialization lead to Universal Suff rage?’ (2004) 21 Homo Oeconomicus 283; Albert O Hirschman, ‘The On-and-Off Connection Between Political and Economic Progress’ (1994) 84 The American Economic Review, Papers and Proceedings of the Hundred and Sixth Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association 343. Intersentia