73 Perera v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs [2021] FCA 403. 74 El Ayeed v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2022] AATA 4381 [49]. 75 Rezaei v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2021] AATA 3884. 76 Ibid [88]. 77 Ibid [95]; Hossin v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2020] AATA 3783; Kahzadi and Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2021] AATA 1137 [12], citing Gjura v Minister for Home Affairs (Citizenship) [2018] AATA 4222 [32]. 78 Rezaei v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2021] AATA 3884 [114]-[116]. 79 ZJCV v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2021] AATA 2238 [150]. 80 Khairollah v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2023] AATA 154. 81 El Ayeed v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2022] AATA 4381. 98 BZADW v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection [2014] FCA 541; SZUNZ v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection [2015] FCAFC 32; Szvcn v Minister For Immigration & Anor [2016] FCCA 431; BRH16 v Minister For Immigration & Anor [2016] FCCA 2920; BRH16 v Minister For Immigration & Anor [2016] FCCA 2920; AXL16 v Minister For Immigration & Anor [2017] FCCA 1687; CIY15 v Minister For Immigration & Anor [2017] FCCA 1696; MVLW and Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (Migration) [2017] AATA 1557; DSO17 v Minister for Immigration & Anor [2018] FCCA 1238. 99 See, for example: Elizabeth A Newnham, April Pearman, Stephanie OlingaShannon and Angela Nickerson, ‘The Mental Health Effects of Visa Insecurity for Refugees and People Seeking Asylum: A Latent Class Analysis’ (May 2019) 64 International Journal of Public Health 763-72; Angela Nickerson et al, ‘The Association between Visa Insecurity and Mental Health, Disability and Social Engagement in Refugees Living in Australia’ (2019) 10(1) European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 100 Andrew & Renata Kaldor Centre for International Refugee Law, Complementary Protection (Factsheet, August 2019) <https://www.unsw. edu.au/content/dam/pdfs/unsw-adobe-websites/kaldor-centre/2023-09factsheet/2023-09-Factsheet_Complementary-protection_Aug2019.pdf>. 101 Michelle Foster, Jane McAdam and Davina Wadley (n 23) 441. 83 MZYEG v Minister for Immigration and Citizenship (2009) 112 ALD 595 [9]. 102 See, for example: Bafreen Mohammad Sherif, ‘The Mental and Physical Health Impacts of Immigration Detention on Asylum Seekers and Refugees in an Australian Context’ (PhD Thesis, Monash University, 2026) <https:// doi.org/10.26180/32003733.v1> and Immigration Detention Coalition, ‘The hidden mental health crisis unfolding behind the walls of detention’, Invisible scars: immigration detention and mental health (Web Page, 9 October 2024) <https://idcoalition.org/news_features/the-long-term-mental-health-impactof-immigration-detention/>. 84 BNZ18 v Minister for Immigration [2020] FCCA 1614 [56]; WZAQH v Minister for Immigration [2013] FCCA 182 [29]; AEH16 v Minister for Immigration [2019] FCCA 34 [55]. 103 Refugee Council of Australia, ‘Offshore Processing Statistics’, Refugee Council of Australia (Web Page, 8 February 2026) <https://www.refugeecouncil. org.au/operation-sovereign-borders-offshore-detention-statistics/4/>. 85 BNZ18 v Minister for Immigration [2020] FCCA 1614 [67]-[68]; AEH16 v Minister for Immigration [2019] FCCA 34 [58], [60]. 104 Department of Home Affairs, ‘Subclass 050 and 051: Bridging Visa E (BVE)’, Immigration and Citizenship (Web Page, September 2024) <https://immi. homeaffairs.gov.au/visas/getting-a-visa/visa-listing/bridging-visa-e-050-051>. 82 John v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs (Citizenship) [2021] AATA 77 [98]: ‘(d) Matters of the Applicant’s legal status as a citizen of either Kuwait or Iraq, or as a stateless person, considered alone, are not determinative in the establishment of his identity.’ 86 BRJ20 v Minister for Immigration, Citizenship, Migrant Services and Multicultural Affairs [2021] FEDCFAMC2G 157 [49]. 87 Lexis+ Australia, n = 27 of 65; AustLII, n = 221 of 592. 88 2113055 (Refugee) [2022] AATA 888 (15 March 2022), [80]; 1901883 (Refugee) [2021] AATA 3216 (2 September 2021), [84], although the Tribunal in this case identified that voluntary return may constitute refoulement where the person returns ‘out of despair due to his prolonged detention’ [114], citing XDJD v Minister for Immigration and Border Protection (Migration) [2021] AATA 2882, [101]. 89 ASF17 v Commonwealth of Australia [2024] HCA 19. 90 Migration Act ss 140(1), 137T. 91 Saleem v MRT [2004] FCA 234, [49], [60]–[63]. 92 Statelessness must be determined according to the relevant country’s municipal laws, ACA16 v Minister for Immigration [2017] FCCA 2074, [40]: R v Burgess; Ex parte Henry (1936) 55 CLR 608; Sykes v Cleary (No 2) (1992) 176 CLR 77. 93 1810282 (Refugee) [2019] AATA 5814 (21 June 2019), [37]–[38], [56]. 94 2001485 (Refugee) [2023] AATA 1353 (16 February 2023), [95]. 95 2102390 (Refugee) [2022] AATA 4547 (4 October 2022), [51]. 96 1831526 (Refugee) [2019] AATA 5963 (26 June 2019) [22], [28], [42]. 97 1831526 (Refugee) [2019] AATA 5963 (26 June 2019) [44], [66]. See also: 1731415 (Refugee) [2019] AATA 5962 (26 June 2019). 102 Peter McMullin Centre on Statelessness | Understanding Statelessness in Australia 105 Department of Home Affairs, Unauthorised Maritime Arrivals on Bridging E Visa: December 2025 (Report, 26 March 2026) 4 <https://www.homeaffairs.gov. au/research-and-stats/files/unauthorised-maritime-arrivals-bve-dec-2025. pdf>. 106 Ibid. 107 Department of Home Affairs, ‘Check Visa Details and Conditions’, Immigration and Citizenship (Web Page) <https://immi.homeaffairs.gov.au/ visas/already-have-a-visa/check-visa-details-and-conditions/see-your-visaconditions?product=050>. 108 Ibid. 109 Ibid. 110 Ibid. 111 Ibid. 112 Ibid. 113 Rachel Ball, When I Tell My Story, I’m in Charge: Ethical and Effective Storytelling in Advocacy (CLC Fellowship Report, Victoria Law Foundation, 2013) <https://www.hrlc.org.au/app/uploads/2025/04/VLF-CLC-finalreport-12-13-_Final_web.pdf>.