(now Bangladesh). They were resettled in Arunachal Pradesh, India, following the construction of the Kaptai Dam in 1964 (CRG 2009). India’s Home Ministry declared in 2017 that Chakmas and Hajongs were eligible for Indian citizenship following a 2015 Supreme Court ruling, but the local government in Arunachal Pradesh opposes this decision and the status of the Chakmas and Hajongs remains contested (Chandran 2017; Dodum 2018). Chakmas and Hajongs from Bangladesh, as well as their Indian-born children, are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. Hindus from Pakistan who came to Jammu and Kashmir after the 1947 partition riots and are not considered Indian citizens Following the partition of India and Pakistan in 1947, many Hindus fled riots in Pakistan and settled in the disputed region of Jammu and Kashmir. As Jammu and Kashmir only granted permanent residency to individuals who were present in that territory for 10 years prior to 1954, many of these refugees were ineligible for permanent residency and, as a consequence, cannot naturalize in India. In 2005, small numbers of refugees were permitted to naturalize, but many remain stateless (CRG 2009; ISI 2014). Most of these refugees are, therefore, potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. Tamil Refugees from Sri Lanka Some Tamils from Sri Lanka in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. These are the descendants of Tamils taken by the British from India to Sri Lanka 200 years ago to work as bonded laborers on tea plantations (CRG 2009 ; 2011). During Sri Lanka’s civil war, some of their descendants fled to India, where they remained in refugee camps as of 2010. While Sri Lanka has granted citizenship to Tamils of Indian origin, many Indian-origin Sri Lankans in refugee camps in India can apply neither for Indian nor Sri Lankan citizenship (ibid.). Likewise, many children born to Tamil refugees in Indian refugee camps are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness (Times of India 2015). Bhutanese of Nepali origin living in eastern/ north-eastern India Some ethnic Nepalese from Bhutan, known as Lhotshampas, fled to India following persecution in their homeland (see “Bhutan” above). India has not granted Lhotshampas a path to citizenship, and most remain stateless (CRG 2009; ISI 2014, 80). Bhutanese-born Lhotshampas from India and their Indian-born children are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. Many ethnic Bengalis from Bangladesh settled in Pakistan at the time of Bangladesh’s independence in 1971. While many were permitted to obtain Pakistani citizenship upon arrival, some had difficulty providing the documentation necessary to obtain Pakistani identification cards and, ultimately, to naturalize (Mughal and Baloch 2017). Many were neither eligible for citizenship in Bangladesh nor Pakistan. In 2018, however, Pakistan’s Prime Minister, Imran Khan, pledged to grant citizenship to stateless Bengali Pakistanis, although it is unclear how many have naturalized (Stubley and Baynes 2018). Ethnic Bengalis from Pakistan who have not obtained Pakistani citizenship are potentially stateless or potentially at risk of statelessness. 28