State power and identification schemes in Rakhine 91 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Known by the British as King Bering. Also see Harvey (1925). Hall (1945). Ob20, Ramu, Coxes Bazar, 31/07/20218. In35, 02/08/2018, Chittagong. Ob11, 30/07/2018, Shahpuri. In44, 25/09/2018, Thayingkhali. Ob22, 28/09/2018, Ramu. Lies and trickery on the part of Myanmar in relation to citizenship and history were a common theme, referred to in all focus groups and in 29 individual interviews. Legislation passed in 1807 banned British subjects and British ships from trading in enslaved people. Slavery in plantations in British colonies continued for a further 30 years. There are numerous studies of how colonial ethnic categories—or the taxonomy of race—in other contexts such as Africa were used to form the basis of divide-and-rule strategies, Apartheid, and later the social significance of the categories formed the basis of mass violence, for example, between Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda. See, for example, Mamdani, M. (1996). Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. And Longman, T. (2001). Identity Cards, Ethnic Self-Perception, and Genocide in Rwanda. Documenting Individual Identity. In35, Chittagong, 02/08/2018. Zerbadi was a term originally used to denote the children of mixed Muslim or Indian and Burmese parentage but became a category into which many Burmese Muslims were conflated. Burmese Muslims considered it derogatory in that it emphasised their foreignness and ‘strangeness’ over their Burmese identity (Yegar 1972). The British census report of 1933 records this dispute as follows: ‘Objection has often been raised against the use of the word Zerbadi, but no satisfactory substitute has been suggested. . . A leaflet was actually issued by this society instructing all Muslims permanently resident in Burma to return themselves at the census as Burma Muslims. This was stopped at once and a Press Communique was also issued explaining that the instructions for the census did not provide for any entry such as “Burma Muslims”‘ (p231). ‘On August 18, 1941, U Ba Oh, inserted an announcement in the press which contained the Governments’ notification (of the discontinuation of the term Zerbadi) and summarised the ten-year struggle that had proceeded it. This was the last activity of the Burma Muslim Society, for it was shortly thereafter that the Japanese invaded the country,’ Yegar, M. 1972 pp. 16, 21–22 Quoting Silver Jubilee ‘Burman Muslims: Their status in Burma,’ Government of Burma’s communiqué, published by the Burma Moslem Society, Rangoon 9 Aug 1941. Indian Passport Act (Act XXXIV of 1920) ‘Some of them -kalas to be frank- did not go back to their kala-pyi, but went to Singapore, Hong-Kong or America. . . They are not trustworthy. . . they are engaged in bad business.’ General Ne Win (8 Feb 1982). Speech on the 1982 Citizenship Law: Meeting Held in Central Meeting House, President House, Ahlone Rd, Translated by Working People’s Daily. ‘Kala’ is a derogatory term for Muslims and people of South Asian descent. ‘Kala-pyi’ means ‘country of kalas.’ In56, 03/10/2018, New Delhi. In33, 30/07/2018 Tekaf; In44, 25/09/2018 Thayingkhali. In44, 25/09/2018 Thayingkhali, Bangladesh. In19, 27/04/2018 Kuala Lumpur; In1, 12/08/2017, New Delhi; In35, 02/08/2018, Chittagong. ‘Princely’ states were semi-sovereign, governed by local rulers but subject to indirect rule by the British Crown. There were hundreds of princely states throughout the region.