38 Theoretical error, real-world problems This citizenism relates to noncitizenism in some sense as sexism relates to feminism or racism to the pursuit of racial equality. It has been referred to by Jason­Tucker­and­Matthew­Gibney­as­‘tyranny’­of­citizenship­and­of­citizens.46 It­is­difficult­retroactively­to­take­noncitizens­into­account­in­structures­theor etically­ defined­ without­ them.47 Work will be needed in order to make sure those­ structures­ can­ address­ noncitizenship.­ It­ will­ be­ difficult.­ But­ it­ is­ not­ impossible. The search for an alternative There­is­disagreement­regarding­how­to­address­these­weaknesses.­Much­empha sis has been placed upon widening access to existing systems through citizen ship, while others have proposed ways to enable rights outside citizenship.48 Another approach is to advocate easier access to border crossings, including internal border crossings.49 There is also a growing body of work arguing for more radical change. Some advocate recognition of a form of global citizenship or another kind of universal membership, while others worry that liberal theory may simply be at an impasse that liberalism itself simply cannot address.50 One other approach is to critique the very notion of citizenship as currently con structed­and­to­pursue­a­different­political­project.51 ­ Some­ have­ tried­ to­ address­ this­ by­ fixing­ the­ way­ in­ which­ citizenship­ is­ defined­and­how­it­is­allocated.­They­problematise­arbitrary­and­excluding­cit izenship regimes based on birth, advocating something like what Ayelet Shachar calls jus nexi in citizenship acquisition, which would be based upon a person’s connections within the citizenry. Dora Kristopoulou, who looks at 46­ Jason­Tucker­and­Matthew­Gibney­take­slightly­different­approaches.­While­Tucker­refers­to­the­ ‘tyranny­of­citizenship’,­warning­about­the­tyranny­of­the­institution­of­citizenship,­Gibney­refers­ to the ‘tyranny of the citizens’, to characterise the fact that those with membership are able to have power over those kept from membership. Jason Tucker (2013) ‘Challenging the tyranny of citizenship: statelessness in Lebanon’, Doctoral Thesis, University of Bath, September 2013, p.­181;­Matthew­Gibney­(2008)­‘Who­Should­be­Included?­Noncitizens,­Conflict­and­the­Consti tution of the Citizenry’, in F. Stewart (ed.) (2008) Horizontal Inequalities and Conflict: Under standing Group Violence in Multiethnic Societies,­Palgrave­Macmillan. 47 John Rawls (2005) Political Liberalism Expanded Edition, Columbia University Press, p. 13. 48 Ayelet Shachar (2009) The Birthright Lottery: Citizenship and Global Inequality, Harvard University Press; Katherine Tonkiss (2013) Migration and Identity in a Post-National World, Palgrave­Macmillan;­Bauböck­ibid.;­Hammar­ibid. 49 Joseph Carens (2013) The Ethics of Immigration, Oxford University Press; Linda Bosniak (2008) ‘Being Here: Ethical Territoriality and the Rights of Immigrants’, pp. 123–138 in Engin Isin, Peter Nyers and Bryan Turner (eds) (2008) Citizenship Between Past and Future, Routledge. 50 Seyla Benhabib (2004) The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents, and Citizens, Cambridge Univer sity Press; Luis Cabrera (2010) The Practice of Global Citizenship, Cambridge University Press; Cole 2000 ibid. 51 Engin Isin (2002) Being Political: Genealogies of Citizenship,­ University­ of­ Minnesota­ Press;­ Engin Isin (2012) Citizens Without Frontiers, Bloomsbury. See also Linda Bosniak (2010) ‘Peasants and Citizens in Constitutional Thought’, pp. 9–29 in I-CONN 8.