K.M. Parvez
Geopsychiatry 3 (2026) 100091
reproduced through institutional and geopolitical processes [6].
Bangladesh has emerged as the principal destination for Rohingya
refugees, driven not only by geographical proximity but also by its
broader positioning as a migration-prone and climate-vulnerable coun
try [7]. Situated along the Bay of Bengal and sharing a porous border
with Myanmar, Bangladesh provides immediate refuge for those fleeing
violence in Rakhine State. The spatial closeness of Cox's Bazar signifi
cantly reduces barriers to cross-border movement, making it a critical
entry point during periods of crisis. Simultaneously, Bangladesh has a
long history of diverse migration flows, including labor migration, in
ternal displacement, and cross-border population movements, which
have shaped its socio-economic and political landscape [8,9]. This his
torical exposure has fostered adaptive mechanisms that facilitate the
reception and accommodation of displaced populations, even in the
absence of formal integration policies [10].
At the same time, Bangladesh's role as a “migration hub” must be
understood in relation to its environmental vulnerability [11]. The
country faces recurrent environmental challenges, including riverbank
erosion, coastal flooding, salinity intrusion, cyclones, and extreme
weather events [12]. These pressures have already generated substantial
internal displacement, particularly in coastal regions where livelihoods
are increasingly threatened [13,14]. The arrival of a large refugee
population into this fragile context intensifies existing environmental
stressors. In Cox's Bazar, rapid and unplanned camp expansion has
resulted in deforestation, land degradation, and ecological imbalance,
thereby increasing susceptibility to landslides and flooding during
monsoon seasons [15]. These transformations not only challenge the
sustainability of humanitarian interventions but also heighten compe
tition over resources between refugees and host communities [16].
This convergence of forced migration and environmental vulnera
bility necessitates a geographically grounded understanding of the
Rohingya crisis. Cox's Bazar represents a critical spatial setting where
displacement, environmental risk, and humanitarian governance inter
sect. Refugee camps, primarily located in Ukhia and Teknaf, are char
acterized by high population density, fragile infrastructure, and
restricted mobility, shaping both material conditions and psychosocial
experiences. In this setting, geography operates as an active determinant
rather than a passive backdrop. The camps function as spaces of
“geographical containment,” where movement is regulated and oppor
tunities are constrained, shaping access to resources, social interaction,
and perceptions of agency [17]. The proximity to Myanmar further
creates a paradoxical spatial condition, where return remains
geographically conceivable yet politically uncertain, reinforcing insta
bility and anticipation among refugees [2,18].
The humanitarian response in Cox's Bazar has been essential in
preventing immediate catastrophe but has gradually evolved into a longterm system of containment characterized by dependency, restricted
mobility, and limited livelihood opportunities [19]. This transformation
reflects a broader shift in which humanitarian assistance becomes a form
of governance, managing populations rather than enabling autonomy or
integration [15,17]. Such a system generates a structural paradox: while
aid sustains life, it simultaneously constrains agency, producing condi
tions of structured dependency and prolonged vulnerability.
Alongside these structural dynamics, growing research highlights the
significant psychosocial impacts of displacement among Rohingya
populations. Elevated levels of trauma, anxiety, and depression have
been widely documented, reflecting both past violence and ongoing
uncertainty [20]. However, existing studies often treat mental health as
an isolated outcome, overlooking its embeddedness within broader
structural and geographical conditions. In contrast, this study concep
tualizes trauma not as a post-event condition but as an ongoing and
structurally reproduced process, shaped by uncertainty, restriction, and
protracted displacement. Within this framework, mental health out
comes are understood as deeply interconnected with spatial confine
ment, environmental instability, and governance structures.
Despite the expanding body of literature, several gaps remain.
Several studies continue to prioritize macro-level political and legal
analysis while neglecting everyday lived experiences [5,6,21,22]. There
is also limited integration of humanitarian governance and geographical
perspectives, particularly in understanding how spatial conditions shape
vulnerability and resilience [4,23]. Furthermore, existing research
frequently fails to connect psychological outcomes with structural and
environmental drivers, resulting in fragmented analysis [6,24]. These
limitations underscore the need for a more integrated analytical
approach.
In response, this study adopts a geographically grounded and geo
psychiatric framework that emphasizes the role of place, environment,
and spatial organization in shaping displacement experiences. Rather
than focusing exclusively on international relations or legal structures,
the analysis situates the crisis within the specific context of Cox's Bazar,
where environmental vulnerability, spatial confinement, and de
mographic concentration interact to produce complex social and psy
chological outcomes. From this perspective, refugee camps are
understood as ‘psychosocial environment’ in which structural and
spatial conditions—such as overcrowding, restricted mobility, and
environmental risk—generate chronic stress and mental health
challenges.
The contribution of this study lies in its integration of qualitative
evidence with a spatially grounded analytical perspective that connects
statelessness, humanitarian governance, and mental health. By focusing
on lived experiences, it moves beyond abstract policy discourse and
provides empirical insight into how structural conditions are internal
ized in everyday life. This approach advances understanding of the
Rohingya crisis as both a spatial and psychosocial phenomenon.
Accordingly, the study is guided by several objectives. It seeks to
examine the lived experiences of Rohingya refugees in Cox's Bazar, with
particular emphasis on how geographical conditions and spatial con
straints shape daily life. It further explores how statelessness influences
identity, belonging, and dignity within protracted displacement. Addi
tionally, the study analyzes the psychosocial impacts of chronic uncer
tainty, restricted mobility, and environmental stress within a
geopsychiatric framework. Finally, it situates these findings within
broader structural and geographical contexts to highlight the need for
integrated policy approaches addressing both material and psychologi
cal dimensions of displacement.
2. Study area
The study was conducted in Cox's Bazar district, located in the
southeastern part of Bangladesh, bordering Myanmar's Rakhine State
along the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 1). Geographically, Cox's Bazar is a stra
tegically significant coastal frontier that serves as a major entry point for
cross-border migration, particularly for Rohingya refugees fleeing
persecution [25]. The district lies within a climatically vulnerable zone
characterized by hilly terrain, coastal ecosystems, and exposure to
extreme weather events such as cyclones, heavy rainfall, landslides, and
flooding. This geographical positioning makes Cox's Bazar not only a
humanitarian hub but also a critical site where forced migration in
tersects with environmental vulnerability and climate-related risks. The
Rohingya influx since 2017 has transformed this region into the largest
refugee settlement globally, with over one million refugees concentrated
in a relatively small geographical area, significantly altering land use
patterns and demographic structures [23].
Bangladesh itself is widely recognized as one of the most climatevulnerable countries in the world, where internal displacement due to
environmental factors such as river erosion, coastal flooding, and
salinity intrusion is already a persistent challenge [8,11]. This broader
context of climate-induced migration provides an important analytical
backdrop for understanding the Rohingya crisis. The arrival of a large
refugee population into an already environmentally stressed region has
intensified existing pressures on land, resources, and infrastructure. In
Cox's Bazar, rapid and unplanned settlement expansion has led to
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