iv. Education 26.  Most Shona report having attended school at least once in their life, though gender differences are noticeable. Overall, 89 percent of the Shona population ages 15 years and above have attended school, including 92 percent of men and 87 percent of women (Figure 20). These numbers fall below the national averages in urban areas (95 percent). Furthermore, men in urban Kenya are more likely to have attended school than women (97 percent vs. 93 percent, p<0.01; Figure 20). 27. Shona community children are less likely to be attending primary school than their national counterparts. As measured by the Net Attendance Rate (NAR) and the Gross Attendance Rate (GAR), which can exceed 100 percent as it includes overage students,28 81 percent of primary-school age (6–13 years) Shona community children reportedly attend school (Figure 21). No gender differences in the primary attendance rates among the Shona community children are noted (Figure 22). The attendance rate goes up to 115 percent when students of all ages are considered, with women slightly more likely to enroll at later ages than males (117 percent compared to 114 percent; Figure 22). The higher participation of the Shona community children in primary education can be partly explained by the free primary education in Kenya and, up until 2018, no identity documents were required to enroll in primary school. In comparison, 86 percent of children ages 6–13 in urban Kenya attend primary school (p<0.01; Figure 21), increasing to 105 percent when all age groups are taken into consideration. At the county levels, nationals who are of primary school age living in Nairobi and Kiambu are about 10 percent more likely to be enrolled in primary school than their Shona counterparts.  FIGURE 20: Distribution of population attended school, ages 15 and above Percent of population 100 89 95 92 97 93 87 80 60 40 20 0 National (urban) Population average Shona Shona National (urban) Men Shona National (urban) Women Source: Shona SES (2019) and KIHBS (KNBS 2015/16). 28 The NAR measures the attendance status of the official age group for a given level of education expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population. The GAR is the number of students attending a given level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the official school-age population corresponding to the same level of education. By definition, the GAR is greater than NAR, and it can exceed 100 percent. The NAR helps determine whether school-age children are attending school at the correct age, whereas the GAR is important to determine the participation of overage participants, which is typically a characteristic of school children in developing countries. 18  Understanding the Socioeconomic Conditions of the Stateless Shona Community in Kenya 10183_Shona Report.indd 18 12/14/20 2:56 PM