provision of the protocol is perhaps the prohibition on dual nationality with any non-ECOWAS state; yet the majority of ECOWAS member states permit dual nationality, by law or in practice, without restriction as to the country of other nationality; none distinguishes between ECOWAS and nonECOWAS states in this regard; and only Liberia provides an absolute ban on adult dual citizenship. 5.3. ECOWAS and trafficking in persons ECOWAS member states have taken concerted actions to combat trafficking in human beings, starting with the adoption of the 2001 Political Declaration and 2002-2003 Initial Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons in West Africa. Further plans of action have followed.293 In 2005, ECOWAS created a dedicated anti-trafficking ECOWAS unit. Some West African countries have also signed bilateral agreements, including Burkina Faso and Mali (2004), Mali and Senegal (2004), Mali and Guinea (2005), Benin and Nigeria (2005), and Benin and Congo Brazzaville (2011). The impact of these initiatives was discussed at a review meeting held in July 2014, which recommended strengthened efforts to collect data and combat human trafficking, including increased supervision of talibé/almajiri schools.294 5.4. ECOWAS and pastoralism In addition to the usual ECOWAS framework on freedom of movement, there have been quite extensive state efforts to address issues related to cross-border pastoralism, with bilateral and multilateral agreements to facilitate cross-border movement.295 Since 2000 pastoralists have been issued explicit sets of livestock passports, international transhumant certificates (ITC) and handbooks of travel. The ITC is essentially a pass which is issued to transhumant pastoralists and their herds to manage the departure of herds, ensure sanitary protection of local herds, and provide inhabitants of reception zones with advance information on the arrival of transhumant herds. UEMOA has also adopted policies on the regulation of the free movement of animals among its eight Member States.296 The African Union also adopted a Policy Framework for Pastoralism in Africa in 2010 which endorses the ECOWAS framework and creates strategic objectives relating to the recognition of pastoralism in development.297 293 Joint ECOWAS ECCAS Plan of Action 2006-2009, and ECOWAS plan of action against trafficking in human beings 2008-2011. 294 Aurore Mayard, Trafficking in Persons in West and Central Africa Brief: Regional figures and trends, IOM, May 2014; “Experts discuss the impact assessment of the ECOWAS Plan of Action to Combat Trafficking in Persons (TIP) in West Africa” ICMPD, 3 April 2014, http://www.icmpd.org/NewsDetail.1668.0.html?&cHash=2445736781&tx_ttnews[tt_news]=212, last accessed 05 August 2014; “ECOWAS Member States Urged to Sign MOUs Against Human Trafficking”, Press Release N°: 143/2014, Abuja, Nigeria, 25 July 2014. 295 See for example, Loi n°01-004/du 27 fevrier 2001 portant Charte pastorale en République du Mali; Agreement Concerning Transhumance between the Republic of Mali and the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, 19 September 1989; Loi n° 2000-044 portant Code pastoral en Mauritanie; Decret No.97/007 PRN/MAG/EL du 10 janvier 1997 fixant statut des terroirs d’attache des pasteurs (Niger); Réglementation de la transhumance entre les états membres de la CEDEAO Décision A/DEC.5/10/98 of 1998 and C/REG.3/01/03 of 2003. 296 See, for example, Règlement N°007/2007/CM/UEMOA Relatif a la sécurité sanitaire des végetaux, des animaux et des aliments dans l’UEMOA. 297 See also “Legislation to Support Crossborder Livestock Mobility”, COMESA Policy Brief Number 14, February 2010. Policy Framework for Pastoralism in Africa: Securing, Protecting and Improving the Lives, Livelihoods and Rights of Pastoralist Communities, African Union, Department of Rural Economy and Agriculture October 2010. 85