Key takeaways: what are the main opportunities and threats? Unless we find ways to reduce existing inequalities, tear down existing structures of exclusion and systemic discrimination, sustainable development for all will remain elusive. Here are some key takeaways in relation to SDG16.9 in light of the aims of the wider Sustainable Development Agenda. Threats Opportunities Despite its clear ambition, the SDG framework is Leave no behind as the guiding principle in the largest ill-equipped to address systemic discrimination and exclusion, which disproportionately affects those furthest behind: by design, the SDG 16.9 indicator is not nuanced enough to reward governments that commit to reaching furthest behind first. As a result, the political will and financial incentives needed to address the most challenging problems is lost. global development effort creates an unprecedented opportunity for efforts and investments to be directed at tackling systemic discrimination and exclusion. The and documentation systems further diverges the flow of investment from strengthening the underlying legal frameworks and CRVS towards sophisticated technological solutions, which can actually serve as a vehicle for further exclusion. development objectives behind legal identity for all as a way to serve more peaceful and inclusive societies are clearly positive and are an opportunity to advocate for universal birth registration and strong CRVS systems. The ambiguity of the notion of ‘legal identity’ also provides an entry point for discussion about deeper discriminatory practices that drive exclusion and a way to frame a constructive conversation about citizenship, belonging and statelessness that may be politically charged issues. Weak civil society engagement in the technological The SSoT property of digital solutions to providing The strong push for digitalisation of the registration space at the crucial stages of the design of digital solutions to provide legal identity for all mean that private sector vendors, unaware of the far-reaching consequences of their work, are shaping the legal identity landscape and determining the livelihood of minorities and vulnerable populations for the generations to come. Rushing digital solutions without appropriate scrutiny of the underlying identification mechanisms produces poorly designed ID systems that (un)intentionally lock vulnerable groups out from the development programming, rendering them invisible to the government and leaving them further behind. legal identity for all, should serve as a strong incentive to address systemic discrimination and exclusionary practices if SDG 16.9 is to be achieved in a way that serves the wider ambition of the SDG Agenda to leave no one behind. ID4D and other digitalisation initiatives to provide legal identity for all create an opportunity for civil society to engage in dialogue with a wide array of public and private-sector stakeholders, helping to shape the legal foundations and accountability frameworks to ensure that technological solutions do not harm, exclude and discriminate against vulnerable populations. Multisectoral cooperation is necessary to ensure that digitalisation can be implemented in a way that is nondiscriminatory, cost-efficient and compatible with the guiding principle of the SDG Agenda to leave no one behind. 5