Ali and Cochrane Comparative Migration Studies (2024) 12:16 article analyzes these changes and projects what the implications of these changes are, with regard to the demographics of the region. A risk for countries with low or no pathways to citizenship is that declining domestic fertility rates will place greater burdens on a relatively smaller working age population while temporary expatriate workers have little to no incentive to invest in the country where they work. The emergent challenges (e.g., stable or declining citizen population and high financial outflows) have the potential to create path dependencies that have additional negative impacts, such as highly skilled workers opting to relocate to countries where they have greater stability (and conversely opting not to migrate to countries where stability is low). Changing the laws or options may not immediately change these path dependencies due to potential migrant perception as well as the socio-cultural institutions that create an accepting and welcoming environment for more diverse permanent forms of immigration. Governments of the region have the opportunity not only to create new pathways to permanence but also gain recognition for leading changes (the first mover advantage). Rapid and open immigration processes also have risks, such as creating greater government financial commitments than inputs (Marois et al., 2020), thus requiring carefully crafted policies in alignment with long-term socio-cultural, political and economic objectives. Each of the three countries in this study have its own unique context and history, which has shaped their policies in this area. In this paper, we explore the recent changes in citizenship and residency laws in Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. To provide a better understanding of these changes, we first look at the demographics and economy of the countries and then move on to the historical context of citizenship and residency. We then focus on recent changes, discussing these changes and the implications they have for citizens, residents, and the broader society. Methodology This study utilizes a comparative case study approach, whereby three cases (countries) are developed, in this case sharing many similar attributes while exploring the divergences in one specific domain. Comparative case study research has been widely used to examine if assumptions apply across different cases (Knight, 2001) and has been applied to compare governments (Barnhurst, 2005). In order to assess the cases, this article contextualizes the three countries using demographic, historical, political, legal and sociocultural sources. To construct these cases, similar data sets and data types were utilized, to improve comparability, and a general structure for each of the cases guided the collection of evidence. In addition to secondary data sets, we draw upon academic literature and legal documents. Since many of the legal changes are recent, we also utilize government announcements and some media reporting (this tracking was particularly useful during the research, as many changes took place in the region during 2023 when this research was undertaken. In order to answer the stated research questions of this study, we also move beyond comparative case studies (which primarily assess the past and present), so that we can provide insight into the future implications of the past and current decisions. This is a unique contribution of this study, as we are able to project what the past and present imply for the future, not only of the three country studies but also of the comparisons between them in the future, and of the region in general. Page 2 of 17