refugee registration systems into national digital population registries.22 There are concerns about this approach (for example, around data sharing), but this form of inclusion can also have a powerful positive effect.23 However, there are very few countries in the world that have a procedure to determine whether a person is stateless and provide similar protection and access to services to that given to refugees.24 Therefore, the vast majority of stateless people are not recognized as “stateless persons”; they simply face denial of nationality from any country where they might have a claim to recognition. There is, moreover, the risk that the status of “stateless person” may itself become a long-term (even inheritable) second-class legal status in the country—unless paired with a certain route to acquisition of nationality. So the core problem is not one of issuing identity documents to stateless persons, but ensuring that processes exist to resolve the status of those residents whose nationality is questioned. Ensure universal birth registration and strengthen civil registration generally The most important starting point for resolution of nationality status (whether of the country of residence, or another country) is the legal recognition of the elements of identity that are relevant for acquisition of nationality at birth—that is, place and date of birth, and identity of the parents. Most nationality laws require these elements of identity to be established through the civil registration system: starting with registration of birth, but in some contexts also the marital status of the parents, or recognition of non-biological parents, including through adoption. 22 “As States increasingly develop digital identity systems, UNHCR must consider how PRIMES should evolve to work as part of the host State’s digital ecosystem, for example, by interoperability with host States’ digital identity systems where an appropriate enabling environment is in place. In this context, where no ‘one size will fit all’, multiple technical solutions will be required within a standards-based framework. In some contexts, in order to meet the objectives of the GCR, UNHCR may be required to undertake the role of a provider of legal or foundational identity or a trusted digital identity provider, as part of the host State’s digital identity ecosystem and regulatory environment.” UNHCR, “Global Virtual Summit on Digital Identity for Refugees, Concluding Workshop: Summary Conclusions and Recommendations,” 7. 23 Atem, “A Symbol of Hope: The Impact of Biometric ID Cards on Refugees in Cameroon.” 24 UNHCR, “Handbook on Protection of Stateless Persons”; UNHCR, Good Practices Paper – Action 6. For European countries see the European Network on Statelessness index. Statelessness and digital identity 9