All Ears to the Ground among many other contexts. 4 Ground level resistance strategies that respond specifically to citizenship violence, however, are yet to be explored in depth. This article aims to contribute to statelessness and citizenship scholarship by outlining a framework to explore resistance. The responses to statelessness by affected people and communities vary and adapt according to the actions of state authorities and the perceived intentions of state actors. International actors often develop programming according to national level priorities. To a lesser extent, they also respond to the actions and forms of resistance of affected communities on the ground. Both national and ground level actions can then influence the development of interventions to combat statelessness by international organisations and non-governmental organisations (‘NGOs’). In the past decade, there has been increased participation of people affected by statelessness in shaping international interventions, and more emphasis within the sector on these interventions being responsive and accountable to affected communities.5 Better understanding of how communities respond when their citizenship and rights are under threat can further efforts towards responsive and accountable international programming. Taking a socio-legal approach, this article contributes to this knowledge base, focusing on the collective and organised modes of resistance to citizenship stripping and violence by directly affected communities. Not all forms of statelessness can be attributed to state abuses of power. This article specifically examines situations where communities of resistance seek to highlight the misuse of state power and call for social justice. It considers situations in which state authorities have weaponised their citizenship laws, ID systems and administrative systems to exclude, segregate or expel people based on their membership of a group. The three case studies explore Rohingya, Kurdish and Palestinian experiences of citizenship violence. In each of these contexts, state authorities have practiced mass citizenship stripping and violence and affected communities have developed diverse strategies of collective resistance. The article is divided into two Parts: Mass Citizenship Stripping and Citizenship Violence; and Resistance. In the first, it identifies five key methods through which states weaponise their citizenship regimes: re-categorisation of 4 5 See, eg, Eve Hayes De Kalaf, Legal Identity, Race and Belonging in the Dominican Republic (Anthem Press 2021); Bronwen Manby, ‘The Sustainable Development Goals and “legal identity for all”: “First, do no harm”’ (2021) 139 World Development 105343; Keren Weitzberg, Margie Cheesman, Aaron Martin and Emrys Schoemaker, ‘Between Surveillance and Recognition: Rethinking Digital Identity in Aid’ (2021) 8 Big Data & Society 1; Mizue Aizeki, Matt Mahmoudi and Coline Schupfer, Resisting Borders and Technologies of Violence (Haymarket Books 2024); Richard Banégas and Armando Cutolo, ID Wars in Côte d’Ivoire: A Political Ethnography of Identification and Citizenship (Oxford University Press 2024); Natalie Brinham, Citizenship and Genocide Cards: IDs, Statelessness and Rohingya Resistance in Myanmar (Routledge 2024) (‘Citizenship and Genocide Cards’); Elizabeth L Rhoads and Ritanjan Das, ‘The Specter of Potential Foreigners: Revisiting the Postcolonial Citizenship Regimes of Myanmar and India’ (2024) 56(2) Critical Asian Studies 155; Silvia Masiero, Unfair ID (SAGE Publications 2024). One example of this change is the European Network on Statelessness’ (‘ENS’) community-led policy for external organisations, which is available here: ENS, ‘External Community Speaker Policy’ (Policy, 13 June 2022) <https://www.statelessness.eu/ updates/publications/ens-external-community-speaker-policy>, archived at <perma.cc/QT9Y-NT7A> (‘External Community’). Another example is the establishment of the Global Statelessness Fund which aims to make funding cycles more responsive and accountable to people affected by statelessness: Global Statelessness Fund (Web Page, October 2024) <https://statelessnessfund.org/>, archived at <perma.cc/4K7W-JTZX> (‘Global Statelessness Fund’). 7