instituted two waiver periods during which Syrian refugees could regularize their marriages free of charge. These measures adopted between 2014 and 2016 have produced a 12-fold increase in birth registration among refugees in 2016 (3,642) and 2015 (3,645) compared to 2013 (295) (UNHCR 2017). When it comes to the identification issues faced by stateless people, additional initiatives could be adopted where there is political will to do so. These could involve, for example, substitute documentation, such as records from local civil or religious leaders, or unlinking identification from nationality (Gelb and Clark 2013). In Pakistan, for example, NADRA has allowed undocumented orphans to get national ID cards despite their unknown parentage and lack of citizenship (Gelb and Clark 2013).134 In India, the Aadhaar ID number can be issued to all citizens and residents of India, including foreign nationals,135 thus de-linking the concept of nationality from identification for secure authentication by third parties for service delivery. Notes 105 The UN has on several occasions recommended strengthening civil registration and vital statistics (CRVS) systems, particularly birth and marriage registration systems. See: UN Human Rights Council, Strengthening efforts to prevent and eliminate child, early, and forced marriage resolution, adopted by the Human Rights Council, 1 July 2015, A/HRC/29/L.15; UN Human Rights Council, Preventing and eliminating child, early, and forced marriage: Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, 2 April 2014, A/HRC/26/22; the CEDAW Committee’s General Recommendation on Article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW/C/GC/29 (2013); Concluding observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women A/57/38(SUPP); UN General Assembly, Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 2002, A/57/38(SUPP). 106 Décret No. 2016-1536 Portant Application de la Loi No. 2016-09 Instituant une Carte d’Identité Biométrique CEDEAO, Article 1. 107 Iraq, National Card Act No. 3 of 2016, Chapter IX. 108 World Bank 2018a; Iraq, Passport Law No. 32 of 2015, Articles. 1(10) and 5. 109 An identification system that uses digital technology throughout the identity lifecycle, including for data capture, validation, storage, and transfer; credential management; and identity verification and authentication (World Bank 2018b). 110 Aadhar is a 12-digit ID number based on biometric and demographic data launched in 2009 by the Unique Identification Authority of India. 111 Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, CEDAW/C/NPL/CO/4-5, Nepal, 2011, paragraph 4; Concluding Observations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, A/59/38 (Part I), 2004, paragraphs 180–185. 112 Nepal, Law No. 2063 Amending Some Nepal Acts to Maintain Gender Equality, 2006, Article 10. 113 Mozambique, Law No. 12 on the Civil Registration Code (8 December 2004), Article 119(1)(a). 114 Mozambique, Law No. 12 on the Civil Registration Code (8 December 2004), Article 149. 115 Mozambique Family Law, 2004, Article 238(1). 116 Angola: Decreto n° 31/07 de 14 de Maio 2007, Registo nascimento [Angola], 14 May 2007, available at: https://www.refworld. org/docid/46bad5922.html [accessed 30 August 2019]. 117 Angola, Decreto Executivo n. 309/13, Isencao de emolumentos em processos de registo de Nascimento ate’ 31/12/2016 – Decreto Executivo no 309/13, de 23 de Setembro, Article 1. 118 UNICEF, Civil Registration and Vital Statistics Data, Angola, at https://data.unicef.org/resources/crvs/angola/; Angola, Decree 80/13 (5 September 2013); Birth Simplification Act, 2015. 119 Belize Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 2003, Chapter 157; Civil Registration in Belize, at https://unstats.un.org/unsd/ demographic/meetings/wshops/Guatemala/2016/docs/Session10-Belize.pdf. 120 Bangladesh, People’s Republic of, Online Birth Registration Information System (BRIS) at http://bris.lgd.gov.bd/ pub/?pg=application_form. 121 See https://www.icivil.bf/presentation_en.php. 122 Certificación de inscripción de nacimiento en línea, at https://aprende.guatemala.com/tramites/documentos-identificacion/ certificación-de-inscripción-de-nacimiento-en-línea/. 22 ACHIEVING UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO ID: GENDER-BASED LEGAL BARRIERS AGAINST WOMEN AND GOOD PRACTICE REFORMS