Kabul is more difficult for women than men. As a result, data suggest that few female IDPs hold tazkera cards. For example, a 2016 survey fielded in Herat Province showed that only 21 percent of female IDPs surveyed held a tazkera, compared with 44 percent of host community women. More men in both groups held tazkeras: 87 percent of male IDPs and 94 percent of men in the host community (Samuel Hall and Norwegian Refugee Council 2016). In May 2018, the Government of Afghanistan launched Electronic National Identity Cards, known as e-tazkera, and put in place policies to tackle the low levels of tazkera card possession among women, including IDP women (Ahmad 2018). b) Barriers to obtaining passports Women face many barriers when applying for a passport, regardless of their marital status, although legal differences are more common for married women (see table 1). As with national IDs, requiring the presence of a male guardian is now uncommon. Reforms removing this requirement from passport application procedures were enacted in 2015 in Afghanistan and Iraq, two of the few remaining countries to have such restrictions in place. However, the written permission of a male guardian or husband is still required by several countries for a married woman to be issued a passport, including Bahrain,13 Gabon,14 the Islamic Republic of Iran,15 and Saudi Arabia.16 In Gabon, a married woman must present permission from her husband and provide his name, nationality, and identity card when applying for a passport.17 In the Islamic Republic of Iran, permission to obtain a passport can also be provided by a woman’s “father, or another male relative,” however, “married women must receive written permission from their husbands before being allowed to leave the country.”18 Further, the social norm that married women should normally be accompanied by their husbands when they travel can be reflected in legal norms. For example, in Yemen, the law explicitly states that “if it is difficult to grant the wife a separate passport, she is added to her husband’s passport,” after evidence of the continuity of the marital relationship is provided.19 Similarly, in Sudan, a married woman may be inscribed in her husband’s passport rather than obtain her own.20 Where male presence or approval is not required, women are often still required to provide additional documentation or information to obtain a passport—similar to national IDs. In Jordan, married women need to provide a copy of a valid Jordanian family booklet and include the name and nationality of their husband on the application form. Unmarried women need to declare their marital status in the application form, a requirement that does not apply to men.21 In Yemen, a personal or family identity card is needed to apply for a passport.22 A married woman who wants to apply for a passport that is separate from her husband’s must provide the husband’s name, nationality, place, and date of birth.23 The additional information required is often the spouse’s name on the passport application form, which is a requirement for married women (but not for married men) in Algeria,24 Egypt,25 Jordan,26 Mali,27 Myanmar,28 Dominica,29 and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. In Dominica,30 married women are required to provide the full name of their husband or former husband together with the place and date of marriage. In Saudi Arabia, all the following restrictions apply. Women must provide the father or husband’s family booklet to apply for a passport, and written consent of the husband or legal guardian is needed, along with proof of marriage or kinship.31 More specifically, married women who are applying for a separate passport must provide the name and national identification number of their husband on the application form. This requirement does not apply to married men.32 Unmarried women must provide the name and national identification number of their guardian on the application form. The guardian is also required to sign the form, affirming that the woman is allowed a separate passport.33 In St. Vincent and the Grenadines, married women must include the place and date of marriage, as well as the husband’s name, place and date of birth, and nationality in the application form. If the husband was born abroad, name, place, and date of birth of the husband’s parents must be provided. A married man may apply for a joint passport, but married women cannot use the joint passport to travel alone.34 In the past, legal regulations have been used to prevent or limit women from using their passports; however, this is now increasingly rare. In Saudi Arabia, a woman under 45 years requires a male guardian’s consent 6 ACHIEVING UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO ID: GENDER-BASED LEGAL BARRIERS AGAINST WOMEN AND GOOD PRACTICE REFORMS