While they are allowed to attend formal education, refugee children are not able to obtain a formal qualification. This is partly because they do not have an official Indonesian ID number, which is required to enrol in the national exams. Instead, students are given a ‘certificate of completion’, which is not an official qualification, and which the 2018 government circular makes clear cannot be used to work or do business. As in other countries, the inability to move on to higher education – or to work in a profession that offers the opportunity to earn a decent living – can discourage young people from engaging in education. Access to higher education is further complicated by a lack of clarity about whether such access is permitted. While the 2018 government circular specifically references access to primary and secondary education, it is silent on access to higher forms of education. In practice, interviewees explained that the decision to admit refugee students is left to individual private universities and education institutions.166 With limited access to formal education, refugee communities – in particular around Jakarta – have established informal community schools. While these do not follow the formal curriculum, they do provide instruction in English, which is extremely desirable, particularly for those seeking third-country resettlement. In the shelters in Aceh – where most of the Rohingya who arrive on boats live – access to formal education is even more limited, largely because of the lack of available facilities in the surrounding area. While there have been advocacy efforts to get these children enrolled in local schools, the situation is difficult because most of those in the shelters are waiting for the opportunity to move on to Malaysia, and so see little value in embarking on education in Indonesia.167 Inside the shelters, informal education is primarily provided by local NGOs, and focused on basic literacy, language instruction (often English and Indonesian), maths, science and religious education. Classes target three age groups: 5–8-year-olds; 9–13-year-olds; and teenagers and adults who are separated into male and female groups. Already stretched resources mean there is no capacity to provide specialist facilities or teaching support for children with disabilities. While NGOs promote education for all, they report some challenges in encouraging older girls and women to access these programmes, partly because of wider cultural attitudes towards women and education, but also because many are travelling to Malaysia for arranged marriages, or in order to secure a husband, and so receiving education is not their primary aim. 3 COUNTRY BY COUNTRY SNAPSHOT Another challenge is that many children do not speak Indonesian, although UNHCR and other organisations have sought to bridge this gap by providing language training before the start of the academic year.164 Disaggregated figures are not available for Rohingya; however, as of July 2020, of the 3,796 registered refugee children in Indonesia, just 577 (15%) were enrolled in accredited national schools.165 PROTECTION CONCERNS Despite regional efforts to address human trafficking, Rohingya refugees continue to undertake perilous journeys by sea to seek a better life for themselves. In some cases, they land in Indonesia while en route to Malaysia. In 2020, at least two boats of refugees landed in Aceh, many of them carrying children: on 24 June, 99 Rohingya (56 of them children) arrived in Aceh after three months at sea, while on 7 September, 296 Rohingya (102 of them children) arrived from Bangladesh after spending seven months at sea.168 Underscoring the desperate conditions facing those on these boats, three of those who arrived in September died soon after disembarking, while the refugees on board estimated that 30 had died during the journey.169 These journeys are extremely dangerous for all who undertake them, but especially so for children. Even before they reach their destination they are at risk of death, physical abuse, extortion and exploitation, not to mention the fact that most – if not all – are likely victims of human trafficking. Separated or unaccompanied children are at even greater risk. Staggeringly, of the 102 Rohingya children who arrived by boat in Aceh in September 2020, the vast majority – 86 – were separated or unaccompanied children.170 Many of the girls and young women were believed to be travelling to Malaysia as part of arranged marriages, which in turn put them at risk of early marriage as well as denial of their rights, including the right to education. In other cases, separated or unaccompanied children who arrive in Indonesia are travelling to join parents or relatives in Malaysia. However, because there are no formal legal channels for family reunification, they often 27