• States are required to adopt every appropriate measure, both internally and in cooperation with other States, to ensure that every child has a nationality when he/she is born. Therefore, children born to married parents, children born out of wedlock, and children born to stateless parents all have an equal right to nationality under international law. • The 1957 Convention on the Nationality of Married Women and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women seek to grant women equal rights with men to acquire, change or retain nationality. In accordance with the principles contained in these Conventions, the husband’s nationality status should not automatically change the nationality of the wife, render her stateless, nor make mandatory her acquisition of his nationality. Deprivation and denial of citizenship The Universal Declaration of Human Rights stipulates that no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of nationality. The 1961 Convention and the 1997 European Convention on Nationality strictly limit the possibilities for States to initiate the loss of citizenship. Any such loss of nationality must be accompanied by full procedural guarantees and should not result in statelessness. Denationalization occurs when a State deprives an individual of citizenship, usually because the State is engaging in discriminatory practices. Expulsion of the individual usually follows. To avoid these problems: • The basic principle of international law is that no one should be deprived of nationality if such deprivation results in statelessness. • The 1961 Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness makes the following exceptions to this principle: – Nationality obtained by misrepresentation or fraud; – Loss of nationality following residence abroad (see above); – Acts inconsistent with a duty of loyalty, either in violation of an express prohibition to render service to another State, or by personal conduct seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the State (only if these are specified in law at the time the Convention was signed); or – Oath or formal declaration of allegiance to another State or repudiation of allegiance to the State (only if specified in law at the time the Convention was signed). A State Party to the 1961 Convention can only deprive an individual of its nationality on the previous grounds if stated specifically at the time of signature, ratification or accession and if in accordance with law and accompanied by full procedural guarantees, such as the right to a fair hearing. A Contracting State may not deprive any person or group of persons of their nationality on racial, ethnic, religious or political grounds. 39