citizenship categories. Laws existing before 1982 are relevant to determining if a person or their family members were considered as citizens prior to the enactment of the 1982 Law. The relevant ones include provisions of the 1947 Constitution, the 1948 Citizenship Act and the 1974 Constitution.72 The 1982 Law grants “associate” and “naturalized citizens” the rights of full citizens “with the exception of the rights stipulated from time to time by the (President or Union Government).”73 In addition to this qualification of their rights under the 1982 Law, and the limitations on their rights included in the Constitution, a range of grounds are included for possible revocation of their citizenship. Section 8(b) permits the revocation of “associate” or “naturalized citizenship” “in the interests of the State.” More specific grounds for revocation of citizenship include failure to provide a written pledge of allegiance to the State,74 “showing disaffection or disloyalty to the State by any act or speech or otherwise”,75 or “committing an offence involving moral turpitude…” 76 Revocation of citizenship may also accompany sentencing upon conviction for certain criminal offences prescribed in the 1982 Law (see below). In comparison, for persons who have lawfully obtained full citizenship, the only grounds for citizenship revocation are if the person takes citizenship of another country.77 Unlike the 2008 Constitution, the 1982 Law explicitly excludes, or contemplates the exclusion of, certain individuals from qualifying for any citizenship. Exclusions are generally, although not uniformly, subject to administrative discretion wielded by authorities at various levels. This can include, in circumstances prescribed in law, the child of a citizen and a non-citizen, 78 and the adopted child of citizens if the birth parents are non-citizens. 79 Persons who have been a citizen or would otherwise qualify for citizenship but have taken citizenship of another country have no right to reapply for citizenship.80 Marriage to a Myanmar citizen does not qualify a foreigner for citizenship; 81 conceptually, use of the term “naturalization” in Myanmar law is somewhat misleading, as there are limited, if any, pathways for foreigners to gain citizenship, unlike in many other jurisdictions. Criminal offences and penalties The 1982 Law and its 1983 procedures define certain criminal offences, and set out severe penalties upon conviction, including, for example, 10 years’ imprisonment and a fine for failure to surrender a cancelled certificate of citizenship, 82 or 15 years’ imprisonment and a fine for forgery. 83 Section 18 of the Law stipulates criminal penalties and revocation of citizenship for persons who are considered to have “acquired citizenship by making a false representation or by concealment.” This can only apply to persons not considered as a “citizen by birth.” 84 Persons who have lawfully acquired full citizenship are exempt from criminal penalties, except if they abetted a crime.85 A range of other criminal penalties may apply only to “associate” and naturalized citizens; 86 as noted, these can be imposed alongside revocation of citizenship. Non-citizens may also be subject to criminal penalties under the 1982 Law and its procedures, as well as under other applicable laws. 87 In cases involving an alleged criminal offence, the 1982 Law and its procedures reaffirm the role of the judiciary,88 and the applicability of the Code of Criminal Procedure89 (note: section 71 of the 1982 Law may affect a prosecution or appeal).90 Decision-making and appeals Chapter 7 of the 1982 Law allows persons to appeal a decision of the Central Body regarding citizenship 91 to the Union Government (formerly “Council of Ministers”).92 Various authorities at multiple levels of government also play roles in the appeal process, mainly by exercising procedural functions of an administrative nature, such as by receiving and processing appeal applications. 93 Under Chapter 5 of the 1983 procedures, an application to appeal a decision of the Central Body can be lodged with local authorities, who are responsible to transmit this to the Union Government. Section 71 of the 1982 Law states that “no reason need be given by organizations invested with authority under this Law in matters carried out under this Law.” The Law also states that a Union Government’s decision regarding a citizenship matter “is final”, thus notionally exempt from judicial review, according to the common 9