Theoretical error, real-world problems 39 citizenship based on residence and Katherine Tonkiss, who focuses on embrac ing State institutions themselves as key, also seek to expand citizenship and in important ways.52­ Their­ work­ does­ not­ conflict­ with­ that­ presented­ here,­ but­ seeks to answer different questions. These approaches contribute to an urgent re-­examination­ of­ the­ justice­ of­ citizenship.­ This­ book­ adds­ that­ insofar as such individuals are in fact experiencing the State qua noncitizens, they have claims qua noncitizens. It is likely that many people currently primarily relat ing as noncitizens need access to much stronger citizenships for the reasons Shachar, Kristopoulou, Nyers, Tonkiss and others set out. However, such indi viduals also currently relate with State institutions in another way, and this also needs to be acknowledged. As was argued in the context of communitari anism above, even if the relationship between external and internal borders is established, it is still necessary to take noncitizens, including territorially present­ noncitizens,­ into­ account­ when­ thinking­ about­ justice­ and­ how­ to­ operationalise it. State obligations towards territorially present noncitizens have been analysed in the context of migration discourse. Recently, some have emphasised the need to move away from focusing on the most vulnerable of migrants as an exception to an assumption of exclusion to include also persons to whom Bas Schotel and Joseph Carens respectively refer as ‘normal’ or ‘ordinary’.53 A key text in this move is Bas Schotel’s 2012 book, On the Right of Exclusion, which demands justification­ for­ the­ exclusion­ even­ of­ ordinary­ migrants.­ Against­ common­ assumptions, he argues that it is exclusion­ that­ needs­ to­ be­ justified,­ not­ inclu sion. However, while Schotel deals primarily with border-crossing, this book draws­ upon­ similar­ justifiability­ problems­ in­ the­ State-­noncitizen­ relationship­ more broadly. In his 2013 book, The Ethics of Immigration,54 Joseph Carens brings several decades of work together to present an approach to entry to a State’s territory that has evolved since his famous 1987 article.55 The current book takes into account both Schotel and Carens’s ways of addressing how ‘ordinary’ or ‘normal’ individuals enter into relationships with States and what this means for noncitizen claims on States. Sarah Fine and Lea Ypi’s 2016 book, Migra tion in Political Theory provides a useful overview of contemporary philo sophical and theoretical debates about migration.56­Many­of­the­essays­in­this­ collection were directed towards addressing the problems associated with noncitizenship. And yet it did not seem to engage explicitly with noncitizenship qua noncitizenship. 52 Shachar 2009, ibid. 53 Bas Schotel (2012) On the Right of Exclusion, Routledge; Carens 2013 ibid. 54 Carens 2013 ibid. 55 Carens 1987 ibid. 56 Sarah Fine and Lea Ypi (eds) (2016) Migration in Political Theory: The Ethics of Movement and Membership, Oxford University Press.