Theoretical error, real-world problems 29 some recognised citizenship or quasi-citizenship. Ethnicity, race, gender and other factors can also affect how both noncitizenship and citizenship are experi enced at the border.9 ­ David­Miller­draws­attention­to­the­assumed­acceptability­of­this­to­foreground­ his­work­on­compatriot­partiality.­He­writes­that­at­the­border,­‘we­dutifully­join­ the­ appropriate­ queue,­ we­ take­ for­ granted­ that­ state­ officials­ can­ treat­ human­ beings quite differently simply because some are citizens and others are not’.10 But the protests that arise when something challenges the acceptability of this indicate otherwise.­Perhaps­comfortable­citizens­join­the­queues­Miller­describes­unthink ingly. It is not so much because they support what the queues represent, but because they have never really thought about it. As was argued in Chapter 2, for those who do not personally experience the challenges of unrecognised noncitizenship, and have not been shown its implications, there is little reason to invent it. ­ A­State­may­also­redefine­the­physical­individual-­State­relationships­that­an­ individual can have with it by changing the nature of the border-zone and extending the spaces of exception.11 Consider cases of extraterritorial immig rant­detention­centres,­like­those­of­Australia­in­Nauru­and­Papua­New­Guinea­ (PNG).­ The­ acute­ vulnerability­ of­ individuals­ in­ extraterritorial­ immigrant­ detention centres has recently been gaining publicity globally. This has been fuelled, in these Australian cases, by self-immolations of detainees who have no other way to be heard, by outcry from doctors, lawyers and civil society members­who­come­into­contact­with­the­centres,­and­by­films­and­newspaper­ articles­ –­ and­ by­ the­ July­ 2016­ PNG­ Supreme­ Court­ decision­ that­ the­ Australian detention centre there is unconstitutional.12 This was compounded by the August 2016 release by the UK newspaper the Guardian of ‘The Nauru 9 Naila Kabeer (2002) ‘Citizenship and the boundaries of the acknowledged community: identity, affiliation­ and­ exclusion’,­ IDS Working Paper 171, October 2002, Institute of Development Studies,­University­of­Sussex;­Willem­Maas­(2009)­‘Unrespected,­Unequal,­Holow?­Contingent­ Citizenship and Reversible Rights in the European Union’, pp. 265–280 in Columbia Journal of European Law­15(2);­Evelyn­Nakano­Glenn­(2004)­Unequal Freedom: How Race and Gender Shaped American Citizenship and Labor, Harvard University Press; Shahram Khosravi (2010) ‘Illegal’ Traveller: An Auto-Ethnography of Borders,­Palgrave­Macmillan. 10­ David­Miller­(2016)­Strangers in Our Midst: The Political Philosophy of Immigration, Harvard University Press, at p. 20. 11­ Georgio­ Agamben­ (1998)­ Homsacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life, Standford University Press; Nando Sigona (2014) ‘Campzenship: reimagining the camp as a social and political space’, pp. 1–15 in Citizenship Studies 19 (1). 12 Lucy Fiske (2016) ‘Self-immolation incidents on Nauru are acts of “hopeful despair” ’, available at http://theconversation.com/self-immolation-incidents-on-nauru-are-acts-of-hopeful-despair-58791; Ben Doherty (2016) ‘Doctors refuse to discharge “Baby Asha” because of fears for safety on Nauru’, the Guardian, 12 February 2016; see the work of Australian Lawyers for Human Rights; for example, using the hashtags #CloseTheCamps and #LetThemStay; The Manus Solution,­a­film­ made as part of the ABC series, Four Corners; Tendayi Bloom (2016) ‘The Beginning of the End of Double-Offshoring?­The­Panama­Papers,­Asylum­in­Australia,­and­the­PNG­Supreme­Court’,­avail able at www.law.ox.ac.uk/research-subject-groups/centre-criminology/centreborder-criminologies/ blog2016/beginning-end (accessed 2nd April 2017).