One of nationality of their parents or grandparents. Roughly half of African states now allow dual nationality. The lobbying of these individuals with economic power has brought a political maturity to their states of ethnic origin in matters of citizenship where years of protest by European or South Asian governments at discriminatory treatment of their own emigrants to Africa had only a counterproductive effect. Though dual nationality will only ever be exercised by a minority in any state, those who hold two passports can provide a concrete demonstration that it is not necessary to have a ‘pure’ bloodline to be a good citizen. South Africa, home of the most extreme version of the settler– native divide embodied in the notion of apartheid, had farthest to go to dismantle this system of discrimination and has achieved the greatest transformation of its legal system. In place of a b­aroque multiplication of different classes of citizenship based on race and ethnicity – both given an entirely inappropriate ‘scientific’ basis – the 1996 constitution creates a single united citizenship, and the rights of all citizens are equal. The new government sought to address the economic and political legacy of the past by offering citizenship to many long-term migrants brought to South Africa under apartheid labour policies; and by measures of affirmative action and economic empowerment for black people, rather than by denying the rights of those who had previously held power to be citizens at all. A new refugee law provided for the right to asylum and eventual grant of citizenship to recognized refugees. The Constitutional Court has confirmed that even noncitizens have certain claims upon the state for social protection. South Africa also provides perhaps the most vivid illustration of the truth that adopting new laws is only a first step towards overcoming past and present injustice. The promise of the new democracy has been sorely tested by the continuing challenge of domestic racial inequality and racial prejudice, as well as by massive popular resentment at large-scale migration from elsewhere in Africa. In May and June 2008, ordinary South Africans erupted in violence that targeted African refugees and migrants: more than sixty people died, and thousands were displaced. The official 24