Biometric Technology at the Borders of Citizenship 349 the complex geometries of regulatory power between the regulated and the regulators, especially at the interfaces between domestic and international standardsetting exercises, as reflective of a tension between local and somewhat “global” (Esty 2006) administrative cultures that under pressure from technology pace and complexity, tend to outsource to private transnational actors increasingly large fractions of their prerogatives. Finally, said further research should accomplish all these objectives through digital ethnographic fieldwork (Goulden et al. 2017) in wartorn areas, situations of identity-sectarian conflict, and humanitarian emergency settings, in order to acquire trust, ask questions that matter, and be informed with inclusionary and field-specific insights that can speak for those societies and groups at higher risk of displacement, resource-plundering (including land-grabbing), persecution, and systemic exploitation. Because of the paucity of legal-policy guidance as well as its technical complexity, and in light of the increasingly violent reality millions of humans live in, this is further research that cannot wait any longer. Acknowledgments: A much earlier draft of the present work was presented in person at the Trustworthy Digital Identity International Conference 2023 organised by the International Institute of Information Technology Bangalore, India, on 14–15 September 2023: the author gratefully acknowledges insights from conference panelists and attendees. This research has also been selected for presentation at the ESIL IG MigRefLaw Pre-Conference Workshop on “Advanced Digital Technologies in Migration Management: A Means to What End?”, to be held on 4 September 2024 in Vilnius. Research ethics: Not applicable. Author contributions: The author has accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission. Competing interests: The author states no conflicts of interest. Research funding: This work received funding from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation via the “Trustworthy Digital Infrastructure for Identity Systems” Grant [INV-001309] awarded to The Alan Turing Institute (London). Data availability: Not applicable. References Abdulrahman, Shaymaa Adnan, and Bilal Alhayani. 2023. “A Comprehensive Survey on the Biometric Systems Based on Physiological and Behavioural Characteristics.” Materials Today: Proceedings 80 (3): 2642–6. Access Now. 2018. “National Digital Identity Programmes: What’s Next?” Final Draft for Comment. https:// www.accessnow.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Digital-Identity-Paper-digital-version-Mar20. pdf.