The primary proof of residency and birth for Rohingya in Myanmar is not through an individual identity card system but through the paper-based household registration or “family lists”, which are regularly checked and updated as part of immigration enforcement and state surveillance activities. These lists also record identity card numbers, religion and ethnicity. It is not only Rohingya who face documentation challenges. Around 30% of the population lacks adequate documentation.112 Accessing citizenship documents is hardest for those excluded from the 135 recognised national ethnic groups, particularly impacting those of South Asian or Chinese descent. Members of nationally recognised minorities can also face difficulty accessing documentation. Returning refugees, those from conflict zones, persons of mixed ethnic or religious heritage, those from impoverished or remote rural locations, women, persons living with disabilities, elderly persons with limited mobility and persons with low levels of literacy or limited Burmese language skills can all face greater obstacles in obtaining citizenship documents.113 Barriers to obtaining citizenship documents include: arbitrary decision-making, discriminatory practices, excessive evidentiary requirements, inaccessibility relating to appointments, lack of administrative or judicial remedies for bad decisions, undue delays, excessive costs and routine bribery.114 The documentation supporting the current identification, travel documentation and civil registration system is stored in government filing cabinets throughout Myanmar. The lack of proper facilities, poor ventilation and humidity puts these hard to use databases and its millions of aging paper files at a permanent risk of damage, manipulation or theft. Digitalising Citizenship Registration and Personal Identification Systems Within the context of nation-wide administrative reform, and the rapid digitisation and modernisation of communications and governance under the slogan of “Digital Myanmar”,115 the government has publicly committed to digitising the citizenship registration system. This system would replace paper files with a centralised digital database. Paper ID cards would be replaced with “e-IDs” which would contain both biographic and biometric information. Since 2014, MoLIP has approached donors and international organisations with the goal of introducing this digital system, which according to Minister U Thein Swe, will assist both “national security” and “digital economy development”.116 In May 2020, Myanmar parliament approved a loan for this purpose of 33 Million Euros from Austrian bank Unicredit, for the project projected to complete within two years.117 Austrian company, OeSD, is currently collaborating with MoLiP on the project. The French multinational company, Thales, which specialises in digital identity systems has also organised workshops and engaged with MoLIP at these preliminary stages.118 Pilot projects collecting biometrics for use in national ID card systems have been conducted in Nay Pyi Taw and Mandalay since 2016 and also with overseas migrant workers.119 More alarming is the collection of biometrics from Rohingya populations in Rakhine State in conjunction with the national verification processes, which has been associated with state violence.120 The Republic of the Union of Myanmar, 2014 Housing and Population Census, The Union Report, 207–208, available at https://myanmar.unfpa.org/en/publications/ union-report-volume-2-main-census-report [accessed 13/11/2020] 113 For an overview of existing challenges see UN Women, Norwegian Refugee Council, ISI, SNAP and UNHCR, ‘A Gender Analysis of the Right to a Nationality in Myanmar’ (2018) available at: https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/reports/myanmar/cedaw-report-web-7-march-2018.pdf [accessed 13/11/2020]; See also C. Beaugrand, ‘Statelessness and Administrative Violence: Biduns’ Survival Strategies in Kuwait’ (2011) 101 The Muslim World 2, 228–250. Available at: https://www.academia. edu/1224546/Statelessness_and_Administrative_Violence_Bidūns_Survival_Strategies_in_Kuwait [accessed 13/11/2020] 114 ISI has a forthcoming report covering the barriers to obtaining citizenship documents, which will be published in 2021. 115 The World Bank, ‘Project Information Document/Integrated Safeguards Data Sheet (PID/ISDS) MM: Digital Myanmar Project (P167978)’ (2018) available at: http:// documents1.worldbank.org/curated/pt/393851542862936421/pdf/Concept-Project-Information-Document-Integrated-Safeguards-Data-Sheet-MM-Digital-MyanmarProject-P167978.pdf [accessed 13/11/2020] Within this context The World Bank has also engaged with Myanmar at the diagnostic stage in identity cards systems for development or ID4D. See World Bank Group, ‘ID4D, 2018 Annual Report’, available at: https://id4d.worldbank.org/sites/id4d.worldbank.org/files/2018_ID4D_Annual_Report.pdf [accessed 13/11/2020] 116 Ministry of Information (Myanmar), ‘E-IDs fundamental to e-governance : U Thein Shwe (23 January 2020) available at: https://www.moi.gov.mm/moi:eng/news/362 [accessed 11/11/2020] 117 Myanmar International Radio, ‘Briefing of 2nd Pyidaungsu Hluttaw’s 16th regular session (25 June 2020) available at: http://miradio.com.mm/news/briefing-2ndpyidaungsu-hluttaw%E2%80%99s-16th-regular-session [accessed 11/11/2020] 118 Ministry of Information (Myanmar), ‘E-IDs fundamental to e-governance : U Thein Shwe (23 January 2020) available at: https://www.moi.gov.mm/moi:eng/news/362 [accessed 11/11/2020] 119 Planet Biometrics, ‘Myanmar launches biometric eID pilots’ (2016) available at: https://www.planetbiometrics.com/article-details/i/5341/desc/myanmar-launchesbiometric-eid-pilots/ [accessed 13/11/2020] 112 23