never returned, or if they did have ties with their villages in Mali, it was to send their children to visit their country of origin.”161 Guineans constitute the third largest migrant community in Côte d’Ivoire, having numbered 230,387 in Côte d’Ivoire’s 1998 census. Certainly some Guineans arrived in Côte d’Ivoire prior to independence, but others also came to Côte d’Ivoire after independence.162 One leading migration researcher observed that many people of Guinean origin fled Côte d’Ivoire en masse after the civil war erupted in Côte d’Ivoire in 2002 and that very few of them had returned.163 Two Guinean embassy and consular officials164 shared that they estimate the current population of Guinean nationals in Côte d’Ivoire to be around 1 million, acknowledging, however, that they do not have any reliable statistics to support this view. At its current state of development, the Guinean government is unable to provide adequate personal identification or nationality documentation. For example, it is estimated that only 20% of Guinean nationals living in Guinea possess a national ID card.165 Guinea began issuing more secure consular cards to its nationals in Côte d’Ivoire in October 2013 which the Guinean consular official claimed will significantly reduce fraud and raise confidence and respect for the titleholders of the new card. This card costs 2,000 CFA Francs and is valid for two years. To obtain a card, an applicant must submit a registration form and supporting documentation establishing Guinean nationality, including any copies of prior consular cards obtained in Côte d’Ivoire. The Guinean authorities admit to providing consular cards to some individuals who present themselves without any documentation, even without a birth certificate, and without witness testimony. The officials explained they conduct around five interviews per week with applicants in such situations and that they have a series of questions regarding language or socio-cultural issues to determine whether a person indeed has ties to Guinea or not. In conclusion, what do these issues indicate with respect to the potential prevalence of statelessness or the risks of statelessness among historical Burkinabè, Malian, and Guinean migrants and their descendants in Côte d’Ivoire? First, it is dangerous and incorrect to make generalized conclusions with respect to the nationality, or stateless, status of those in this group. Some migrants possess documentation establishing ties to their country of origin that serve as proof of nationality, while others have no documents or knowledge that would enable them to assert a connection that would be accepted as proof of nationality. This underscores that solutions to prevent statelessness must be found not only in Côte d’Ivoire, but also in the countries of origin of migrants. As such, an individual determination of a person’s potential statelessness status, or levels of risk of statelessness is required. It is nevertheless imperative to acknowledge that some people in this group are likely stateless and others are at high risk of statelessness if preventive measures are not taken for them to acquire nationality documentation of one of the countries to which they can demonstrate ties. Finally, as some of the case examples elaborated further below will demonstrate, individuals and communities who are the most marginalized to begin with are those most likely to be found to be stateless or at risk. This is due to a combination of reinforcing factors such as illiteracy and poverty. In urban or village-based communities, documentation problems are widespread, but avenues for solutions in some cases can be found (though often requiring money and other means that present practical obstacles). When asked whether there were individuals or groups who truly 161 Camara, supra note 158, p. 331. Bredeloup, supra note 155, p. 138. 163 Merabet, supra note 19, p. 20. 164 Interview, Abidjan, July 2014. 165 Bronwen Manby, Citizenship Law in Africa, Third Edition, Cape Town: African Minds, 2016, p. 118, citing Jaap van der Straaten, Towards Universal Birth Registration in Guinea: Analysis and recommendations for civil registration reform in Guinea for Government and UNICEF, Civil Registration Centre for Development - CRC4D, December 2013. 162 44