nationality systems and the potential consequences of a growing population without legal ties to the country in which they live or to any State? 3. Analysis of Côte d’Ivoire’s Nationality Laws and their Implementation in Practice Côte d’Ivoire’s foundational 1961 Nationality Code,53 which remains in force today, has been amended by no less than four laws enacted by the Ivorian parliament, as well as two presidential decisions.54 Furthermore, an exceptional and temporary naturalization regime was established pursuant to two laws adopted by the Ivorian parliament in 2004, and two presidential decisions taken in 2005. Finally, a 2013 law established a special, temporary program to facilitate the acquisition of nationality by declaration. Practical implementation of Ivorian laws is defined through decrees, which are prepared by relevant Ministries of the executive government, approved by the Council of Ministers, and published in the Official Journal (Journal Officiel). Another layer of practical instructions comes from relevant Ministries in the form of circulars (circulaires) or orders (arrêtés). To understand the full scope of Côte d’Ivoire’s nationality laws, it is imperative to examine and take all accompanying decrees and administrative regulations into account. Annex I provides an overview list of the laws, presidential decisions, and some regulations that have amended and complemented the 1961 Nationality Code. This section is divided into two parts. The first part highlights the choices made in the 1961 Nationality Code to privilege Ivorian nationality by origin and to create a separate regime for acquisition of Ivorian nationality for foreigners before outlining the amendments made to the 1961 Nationality Code over time. The second part turns to an analysis of Côte d’Ivoire’s nationality laws that are currently in force, providing observations and distinctions between the letter of the laws and how they are implemented in practice. 3.1. The 1961 Nationality Code and an overview of its evolution From its inception, the Ivorian Nationality Code has foreseen two main ways that a person can be an Ivorian national. On the one hand, a person can be an Ivorian by virtue of the automatic attribution of Ivorian nationality through nationality by origin (l’attribution de la nationalité ivoirienne à titre de nationalité d’origine). The 1961 Nationality Code foresaw attribution of nationality by origin to three groups: anyone born in Côte d’Ivoire unless both parents were “foreigners,” to anyone born outside Côte d’Ivoire to at least one Ivorian parent; and to children of unknown parents found in Côte d’Ivoire. On the other hand, an individual can acquire Ivorian nationality through one of three modes of acquisition. At the time of Ivorian independence, the 1961 Nationality Code included the following modes of acquisition of Ivorian nationality: (1) acquisition of Ivorian nationality by operation of law (acquisition de plein droit), applying to children adopted by Ivorian nationals and foreign women marrying Ivorian nationals; (2) acquisition of Ivorian nationality by declaration, applying to several categories of minor children born in the country; and (3) acquisition of Ivorian 53 Loi No. 61-415 du 14 décembre 1961 portant Code de la nationalité ivoirienne. This law was published in the Official Journal on 20 December 1961. Its implementing decree, Décret No. 61-425 du 29 décembre 1961 portant application du Code de la nationalité ivoirienne, was published in the Official Journal on 18 January 1962. 54 These, and subsequent presidential decisions on nationality carry the force of law as they were passed in conformity with Article 48 of the Constitution, which grants the President law-making power in exceptional circumstances. 14