655. Wendy Hunter, Undocumented Nationals: Between Statelessness and Citizenship 22 & n.31 (2019). See also Sarah Igo, The Known Citizen 61 (2018). On parents living “off the grid” see Barbara Cotter, Born in the USA; without a shred of proof, The Gazette (Sep. 30, 2011), https://gazette.com/ news/born-in-the-usa-without-a-shred-of-proof/article_ a9a684fd-d024-531d-9b17-2282578cda4a.html; children born to midwives (https://www.sfchronicle.com/opinion/ article/Born-in-the-USA-When-a-birth-certificateisn-t-6644984.php); on foster care see Joy Diaz and Becky Fogel, Unidentified: How Kids Can Age Out of Texas Foster Care Without Documentation, Austin, Texas, Texas Standard), http://specials.texasstandard.org/unidentified/. 656. Manny Fernandez, Immigrants fight Texas’ birth certificate rules, N.Y. Times (Sept. 17, 2015), https://www. nytimes.com/2015/09/18/us/illegal-immigrant-birth-certificates.html?_r=0. 657. Julia Preston, Lawsuit forces Texas to make it easier for immigrants to get birth certificates for children, N.Y. Times (July 24, 2016), https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/25/us/ lawsuit-texas-immigrants-birth-certificates.html?_ r=0&login=smartlock&auth=login-smartlock. 667. Texas Department of Health and Human Services, Office of Inspector General, Birth Certificate Fraud, 0EI-07-99-00570 (Sept. 2000), https://oig.hhs.gov/oei/ reports/oei-07-99-00570.pdf; National Research Council of the National Academies, Committee on National Statistics, Vital Statistics: Summary of a Workshop, Michael J. Siri and Daniel L. Cork, rapporteurs (2009), https:// www.nap.edu/catalog/12714/vital-statistics-summary-of-a-workshop. 668. Lee Harris & Quinn Owen, Trump panel found no evidence of widespread voter fraud, sought ‘pre-ordained outcome’: former member, ABC News (Aug. 5, 2018), https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/trump-panel-found-evidence-widespread-voter-fraud-sought/story?id=56995344 (quoting former member Maine Secretary of State Mark Dunlap: “While individual cases of improper or fraudulent voting occur infrequently, the instances of which I am aware do not provide any basis to extrapolate widespread or systematic problems.”). 669. Chokshi, supra note 659. 670. Nguyen v. INS, 533 U.S. 53, 96-97 (2001) (O’Connor, J., dissenting). 658. Interview notes on file with the Open Society Justice Initiative. 671. This is not, and is not intended to be, a comprehensive list. 659. Niraj Chokshi, Federal Judge halts ‘ham-handed’ Texas voter purge, N.Y. Times (Feb. 28, 2019), https://www. nytimes.com/2019/02/28/us/texas-voter-rolls.html. 672. Fiallo v. Bell, 430 U.S. 787, 792 (1977). 660. Id. 674. Patrick Weil, Citizenship, Passports, and the Legal Identity of Americans: Edward Snowden and Others Have a Case in the Courts, Yale L.J. Forum (April 23, 2014). 661. Settlement Agreement, Texas League of United Latin American Citizens et al. v. Secretary of State David Whitley et al. (Apr. 2019), Nos. SA-19-CA-074-FB, SA-19-CA-159-FB, SA-19-CS-171-FB, https://www.aclutx.org/sites/default/ files/4-25-10_voter_purge_settlement_agreement.pdf. 662. National Research Council of the National Academies, Committee on National Statistics, Vital Statistics: Summary of a Workshop, Michael J. Siri and Daniel L. Cork, rapporteurs, at 38 (2009), https://www.nap.edu/ catalog/12714/vital-statistics-summary-of-a-workshop. 663. IRTPA would soon be followed by the REAL ID Act of 2005, which introduced further and stricter requirements for verification of state-issued identity documents. See note 580, supra. 664. National Research Council of the National Academies, Committee on National Statistics, Vital Statistics: Summary of a Workshop, Michael J. Siri and Daniel L. Cork, rapporteurs, at 38 and Appendix B (2009), https://www. nap.edu/catalog/12714/vital-statistics-summary-of-a-workshop. 665. Id. 666. Id. Appendix A, at 66. Endnotes 673. Afroyim, 387 U.S. at 268. 675. Id. at 576. 676. Tuan Anh Nguyen v. INS, 533 U.S. 53, 67 (2001). 677. Patrick Weil, Citizenship, Passports, and the Legal Identity of Americans: Edward Snowden and Others Have a Case in the Courts, Yale L.J. Forum (April 23, 2014). 678. See generally Open Society Justice Initiative, Zhao v. The Netherlands, Compl. to U.N. Human Rights Committee (Nov. 23, 2016), https://www.justiceinitiative.org/ litigation/zhao-v-netherlands. 679. Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86, 92 (1958). 680. Kent v. Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 125-26 (1958). 681. Gretchen C. F. Shappert, Aram A. Gavoor & Steven A. Platt, Constitutional Aspects of Civil Immigration Enforcement, in 65 U.S. Attorneys’ Bulletin (July 2017), at 45, https://www.justice.gov/usao/page/file/984701/ download; Yamataya v. Fisher, 459 U.S. 86, 101 (1903). 682. Stranded Abroad: Shadow Report on Coercive Interrogations and Due Process Violations in the Confiscation or Revocation of Passports of American Citizens of Yemeni 191