56. Abo v. Clark, 77 F. Supp. 806, 812 (N.D. Cal. 1948), rev’d in part on other grounds, McGrath v. Abo, 186 F.2d 766, 770 (9th Cir. 1951). Nearly all renunciations were ultimately invalidated. See Eric L. Muller, Japanese American Cases – A Bigger Disaster Than We Realized, 49 How. L. J. 417, 457 (2006) (92% of the 5,409 applications for restoration of citizenship were successful). The total number of renunciations at Tule Lake was around 6,000. Ibid. at 454. 57. Patrick Weil, The Sovereign Citizen: Denaturalization and the Origins of the American Republic 101 (2013). 58. Id. at 105. 59. David Scott FitzGerald, The History of Racialized Citizenship, in Ayelet Shachar, Rainer Baubock, Irene Bloemraad, and Maarten Vink, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship 139-40 (2017) (citing Mae M. Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (2004)). 60. Cassandra Burke Robertson and Irina D. Manta, (Un) Civil Denaturalization, 94 New York University Law Review 402, 429 (2019), https://www.nyulawreview.org/ wp-content/uploads/2019/06/NYULawReview-94-3-RobertsonMantapdf.pdf. 61. Proposals have been made in 2003, 2010, 2011, 2014, 2015, and 2017. The most recent bill, introduced in 2017 (the Expatriate Terrorists Act) would equate “voluntary relinquishment” of citizenship with “membership, training, and oaths of allegiance” to a terrorist group. 62. Peter J. Spiro, Expatriating Terrorists, 82 Fordham L. Rev. 2169, 2170 (2014). 63. See generally Patrick Weil, The Sovereign Citizen: Denaturalization and the Origins of the American Republic (2013); Cassandra Burke Robertson and Irina D. Manta, (Un)Civil Denaturalization, 94 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 402, 440-445 (2019), https://www.nyulawreview.org/wp-content/ uploads/2019/06/NYULawReview-94-3-RobertsonMantapdf.pdf. 64. Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86, 101-102 (1958). 65. 1940 Nationality Act, § 401(j). 66. Afroyim v. Rusk, 387 U.S. 253, 268 (1967). For discussion of subsequent jurisprudence on the scope of application of Afroyim, see Patrick Weil, The Sovereign Citizen: Denaturalization and the Origins of the American Republic 176-178 (2013) (discussing Bellei (application to citizenship acquired through birth abroad to American parents) and Vance v. Terrazaz (1980) (on the meaning of voluntariness)). 67. Jared A. Goldstein, Unfit for the Constitution: Nativism and the Constitution, from the Founding Fathers to Donald Trump, 20 U. Pa. J. Const. L. 489, 538 (2018). Rainer Baubock, Irene Bloemraad, and Maarten Vink, eds., The Oxford Handbook of Citizenship 636 (2017) (“[A] lmost all of the more than one million Mexican citizens who have acquired citizenship in the United States since 1998 became dual citizens upon naturalization.”). 69. United States Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, Dual Nationality, https://travel.state. gov/content/travel/en/legal/travel-legal-considerations/ Advice-about-Possible-Loss-of-US-Nationality-Dual-Nationality/Dual-Nationality.html. 70. Id. 71. USCIS, Naturalization Oath of Allegiance to the United States of America, (June 25, 2014), https://www.uscis.gov/ us-citizenship/naturalization-test/naturalization-oath-allegiance-united-states-america/. 72. 12 USCIS, Policy Manual Part D, General Naturalization Requirements, Chapter 7 - Attachment to the Constitution, (June 6, 2019), https://www.uscis.gov/ policy-manual/volume-12-part-d-chapter-7#footnote-1. 73. The United States is a party to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR), the Convention against Torture (CAT), and the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees. 74. Leslie Esbrook, Citizenship Unmoored: Expatriation as a Counter-Terrorism Tool, 37 U. Pa. J. Int’l L. 1273, 1305-06 (2016). 75. See UN General Assembly, International Law Commission, Expulsion of Aliens: Texts and Titles of the Draft Articles Adopted by the Drafting Committee on Second Reading, U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/L.832, 20 May 2014, Article 8 (“[a] State shall not make its national an alien, by deprivation of nationality, for the sole purpose of expelling him or her.”). 76. See Audrey Macklin, Citizenship Revocation, the Privilege to Have Rights and the Production of the Alien, 40 Queen’s L. J. 1, 15 (2014). 77. Martha S. Jones, Birthright Citizens: A History of Race and Rights in Antebellum America 4 (2018) (“At its core, citizenship was a claim to place, to enter and remain within the nation’s borders. Citizenship…, would protect free black people from expulsion.”). 78. Eric Fripp, ed., The Law and Practice of Expulsion and Exclusion from the United Kingdom: Deportation, Removal, Exclusion and Deprivation of Citizenship 41 (2015) (citing Oppenheim’s International Law: “international recognition and protection of human rights was in accordance not only with an enlightened conception of the objects of international law but also with an essential requirement of international peace.”). 68. See Peter Spiro, Multiple Citizenship, Ayelet Shachar, Endnotes 165